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THE

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY

AND

JOURNAL

or

ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY,

AND METEOROLOGY.

CONDUCTED

By J. C. LOUDON, F.L., G., & Z.S.

MEMBER OF VARIOUS NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES ON THE CONTINENT.

LONDON

PRINTED FOR

LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMAN,

PATERNOSTER-ROW.

1832.

oak ;^ird. «x''^n* ; ...-^ *..~^. ..,.^ ^Ino Sow

London :
Printed by A. & H. Spottiawoode,
- New-Street-Square.

PREFACE.

The Magazine of Natural History, our readers, we trust, will
agree with us in thinking, improves as it proceeds ; and this Fifth
Volume, now brought to a close, will be found to excel all that
have preceded it, in the variety and interest of the communi-
cations which it contains. For this superiority we are mainly
indebted to our contributors, among whom, it will be found, are
not only some of the first naturalists of this country, but also
others, whom this Magazine has been the means of exciting to
enter on this branch of study. Our readers cannot have failed to
observe that this work, as well as the Gardeners Magazine, has
derived the greatest advantage from the industry and talent of
our excellent co-editor, Mr. Denson.

In consequence of the increasing number of communications,
we have, for more than a year past, contemplated the idea of
publishing the work monthly ; and we have solicited, from time
to time, the opinion of our readers and correspondents on this
subject. Our correspondents, with very few exceptions, approve
of the proposed change, but we have not the same assurance from
our readers generally. We have, therefore, after mature con-
sideration, determined on continuing the work another year, at
least, on the same terms of publication as heretofore.

In the Index to this Volume we have omitted what we were led
to think by some of our friends would render it more complete,
viz., the separate alphabets of the Queries and Answers, and of
the Retrospective Criticism. We find that this gave readers a
great deal of additional trouble, by obliging them, when consulting
the Magazine on any particular subject, first to refer to the
common alphabet, and next to the separate alphabets, under the
two heads mentioned. We have, in the present Index, endea-
voured to arrange every item of information so distinctly as
seldom, if ever, to have two references to the same pages under
different heads ; a fault (as we think) common to most indexes. It

S A 2

IV

PREFACE.

has also been suggested to us that the Glossarial Index is no
longer necessary ; since our readers, from our preceding indexes
of this kind, and also from the general spread of Natural History
knowledge, as well as from all difficult terms being explained
when they first occur, may now be supposed to be able to dispense
with this kind of information.

Our great object, in commencing the Magazine of Natural His-
tory, and in conducting it, as well as all the other publications
with which we are connected, has been, and is, to convey the
greatest degree of knowledge, to the greatest number, in the most
easy and agreeable manner, and with the least labour and loss of
time. With this aim, we shall continue our exertions ; encouraged
by our past success, anxiously inviting the continued support of
those who approve of our intentions, and sincerely thanking all
our contributors for that able cooperation which has rendered
this Magazine what it is.

J. C. L.
Bayswatevy Oct. 1832.

CORRECTIONS.

Errors are corrected, as soon as noticed, in
the division of the Magazine entitled " Re-
trospective Criticism," which occurs in the
present volume at pp. 98. 193. 292. 393. 487. 588.
673. and 714. Besides the corrections made
under this head, the following are required : —
In p. 48. last two lines, for " the cuticle of the
stem and it bracteas have no perspiring
pores," read " the cuticle of the stem and its
bracteas has no perspiring pores."
In p. 340. line 2. from the bottom, for "the
ordinary length and size," read " half the
ordinary length and size : " the drawing was
reduced in the engraving, and the letterpress
was not altered accordingly.

In p. 390, 391, 392. for « cilise » read " cilia."

In p. 555. for " M.R." read " M.P."

In p. 571. line 11. for " Avfcola" read " Ar-
vicola."

In p. 589. line 18. for " collection in " read " col-
lection of."

In p. 599. line 16. from the bottom, for " 6s in-
nominkta" read " 6$ innomin&tum."

In p. 677. line 21. from the bottom, for " mo-
ment " read " enormous."

In Vol. III. p. 6. in Mr. Dovaston's Biography
of Bewick, for " 1719 " read " 1819."

In Vol. IV. in the Index, for " Hail in the
south of France, &c., 540," read " Hail, &c.,
551."

CONTENTS.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

GENERAL SUBJECT.

Remarks on the Luminosity of the Sea. By J.
E. Bowman, Esq. F.L.S. - -1

Further Account of a Russian Natural History
Expedition in Brazil, during the Seven Years
preceding April, 18jI. By M. F. Faldennann,
Curator of the Imperial Botanic Garden, St.
Petersburgh - . . . 4

An Essay on the Analogy between the Struc-
ture and Functions of Vegetables and Ani-
mals. By William Gordon, Esq., Surgeon,
Welton, near Hull. Read before the Hull
Literary and Philosophical Society, Nov. 19.
1830. Communicated by Mr. Gordon 24. il8.
405. 507

Fairy Rings. By John F. M. Dovaston, Esq.
A.M., of Westfelton, near Shrewsbury - 113

Rough Notes made during a Pedestrian Tour to
the Lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland,
in the Spring of 1830. By G, and H. - 128

Contributions towards an Account of Omens
and Superstitions connected with Natural
History. By J. C. Farmer - .. 209

A Visit to the Surrey Zoological Gardens. By
Observator . - . . 401

Chit-chat. No. I. By John F. M. Dovaston,
Esq. A.M., of Westfelton, near Shrewsbury

497

Remarks on the Spring of 1832, as compared
with that of 1831, together with a Calendar
showing the Difference of the Two Seasons.
By the Rev.W. T. Bree, MA. - . 593

ZOOLOGY.

The Habits of the Barn Owl (Strix fl&mmea L.,
Alilco Rkmmexis Fleming), and the Benefits it
confers on Man. By Charles Waterton, Esq. 9

Fishes new to the British Fauna, contained in
Couch's " History of the Fishes of Cornwall."
By Jonathan Couch, Esq. F.L.S. &c. - 15

An Introduction to the Natural History of Mol-
luscous Animals. In a Series of Letters. By
G.J 31

Illustrations in British Zoology. By George

Johnston, M.D. Fellow of the Royal College

of Surgeons of Edinburgh - 43. 163. 344. 428.

520. 631

Account of the 5imia syndactyla, or Ungka Ape
of Sumatra ; the Anatomy of its Larynx,
&c. &c. By George Bennett, Esq. F.L.S.
M.R.C.S. &c. &c. - - . 131

Remarks on Incubation, in reference to those
expressed in Professor Rennie's Edition of
•' Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary." By
Charles Waterton, Esq. - - .142

Dates and Remarks relative to the Migration
of the Swifts in the Year 1831. By the Rev
W.T. Bree, M.A. . . . U5

The Little, or Barred, Woodpecker (Plcus mi-
nor L.). By John F. M. Dovaston, A.M., of
Westfelton, near Shrewsbury - . 147

On the Claim of certain Lepidopterous Insects
taken in England to be considered as indi
genous. By W. A. B. - - . 149

The Characters of the European Diptera, from
Meigen's " Systematische Beschreibung."
Translated by George Wailes, Esq. - 156

Observations on the Zoology and Comparative
Anatomy of the Skeleton of the Balienoptera
Rdrqual, or Broad-nosed Whale, now exhi-
biting at the Pavilion, King's Mews, Charing

Cross. By Henry William Dewhurst, Esq ,
Surgeon, Professor of Zoology and Compara-
tive Anatomy . . - . 214
On the Faculty of Scent in the Vulture. By
Charles Waterton, Esq. - - 233
Remarks on the Rook (C6rvus frugilegus L.)
By Charles Waterton, Esq. - - 241
Entomological Tour through several English
Counties, and in Wales and Ireland, during
July and August, 1831. By A. H. Davis, Esq.
F.L.S. . . - .245
Captures of Insects during Part of 1830 and
Part of 1831. By J. C. Dale, Esq. F.L.S.
F.C.PS. and Z.C. - - - 249
An Account of the parasitic Musca larvarum
preyed on by parasitic Pter6mali, while both
were in the Body of Phalae'na 56mbyx Cdja.
By Edward Newman, Esq. - - 252

The Habits and Manners of the female Borneo
Orang-Utan (Simla Satyrus), and the male
Chimpanzee (6imia Troglodytes), as observed
during their Exhibition at the Egyptian Hall,
in 1831. By Mr. J. E. Warwick . - 305
A Notice of the Reed Warbler (Curruca arun-
dinkcea Bnsson). By J. G., Stoke Newing-
ton - . - - 309

Further Observations on some of the Fisl>es of
Cornwall. By Jonathan Couch, Esq. F.L.S.
&c. - ... 311

Descriptive Notice of the Char (Salmo alplnus
Z.), and mention of another Species of Fish.
By O. - - - - - 316

On some remarkable Forms in Entomology, in-
cluding a Notice of Mr. Stephens's Description
of Chiasognkthus Grantw. By J. O. West-
wood, Esq. F.L.S. &c. - - - 318

Additions to the List of British Insects. By
Charles C. Babington, B.A. F.L.S. &c., St.
John's College, Cambridge - - 327

List of PapilionidEB occurring in the Vicinity of
Dover. By the Rev.W. T. Bree, M. A. -320

Some Account of a Species of .4'carus (?) which
infests Butterflies. By the Rev. W. T. Bree,
M.A. - . . .S3Q

Remarks en a Species of i^pas cast ashore near
Liverpool on Nov. 7. 1831. By Thomas Wea-
therili, Esq. M.D. - - -339

On Birds using Oil from Glands, " for the Pur-
pose of lubricating the Surface of their Plu-
mage." By Charles Waterton, Esq. - 412

Observations on the Eggs and Birds which were
met with in a Three Weeks' Sojourn (from
May 30. to June 21. 1831) in the Orkney Islands.
By J. D. Salmon, Esq. - - -415

A few Remarks on the Nightingale and the
Blackcap. By Joh n F. M. Dovaston , Esq. A. M.
Oxon., of Westfelton, near Shrewsbury - 425

On the supposed Pouch under the Bill of the
Rook. By Charles Waterton, Esq. - 512

On the Preservation of Egg-shells for Cabinets
of Natural History. By Charles Waterton,
Esq. - - . - . 515

Brief Notices of the Habits and Transformations
of the Dragon Fly ; compiled in explanation
of the accompanying Cut. By J. D. - 517

Additions to the British Fauna ; Class, Mam-
malia. By William Yarrell, Esq. F.L. and
Z.S. 598

Something about Birds and Birdnesting. By
Rusticus . - - 601

On the Power of the Common Bee to generate

Vi

CONTENTS.

a Queen. By Robert Huish, Esq., Author of

" A Treatise on Bees " - - 604

An Introduction to the Natural History of

Molluscous Animals. In a Series of Letters.

By G. J. Letter 10. On their Secretions . 611
On some Peculiarities in the Construction of

the Nets of the common Garden Spider

(Epelra diad^ma). By William Spence, Esq.

F.L.S. 689

Some Account of the ilmax Sow<5rbyi of Ferus-

sac. By John Denson, Jun. A.L.S. - 693

BOTANY.

On ;the Parasitical Connection of Lathr£e"*a
Squam&ria, and the peculiar Structure of its
subterranean Leaves. Read at the I^innean
Society in November, 1829 - - 45

An Account of the Sandal Wood Tree {Sdnta-
lum)f with Observations on some of the Bo-
tanical Productions of the Sandwich Islands.
By George Bennett, F.L.S., Member of the
Royal College of Surgeons in London, &c. £55

On Variations in the Cotyledons and Primordial
Leaves of the Sycamore (.4^cer Pseudo-Plata-
nus L.). By the Rev. J. S. Henslow, A.M.,
King's Professor of Botany in the University
of Cambridge - - - .. 346

On the Fructification of the genus Chkra. By
the Rev. J. S. Henslow, A.M., King's Profes-

f sor of Botany in the University of Cambridge

348

On the Varieties of Pkris quadrifblia, considered

. with respect to the ordinary Characteristics
of Monocotyledonous Plants. By the Rev.
J. S. Henslow, A.M., King's Professor of Bo-
tany in the University of Cambridge - 429

On the Dispersion and Distribution of Plants.
By J. E. L. - - . - 522

GEOLOGY.

Volcanoes. By W. M. Higgins, Esq. F.G.S., and
J.W. Draper, Esq. - - 164. 262. 632

On the Effects produced by the Precession of
the Equinoxes. By Sir John Byerley, P'.R.S.L.

172

On the recent Discovery of Gold Mines in the
United States of America. By Robert Bake-
well, Esq. . - . - 434

Remarks on the Formation of the Dead Sea,
and the surrounding District. By J.W. Dra-
per, Esq., and W. M. Higgins, Esq. F. G.S. 532

Contributions to the Geology of Berwickshire.
By Robert Dundas Thomson, CM. and M.D.,
of the Honourable East India Company's Ser-
vice. [Read before the Berwickshire Natu-
ralists' Club, December 21. 1831.] - 637

METEOROLOGY.

Observations made in the Neighbourhood of
High Wycombe, Bucks, on the Temperature
of the Atmosphere, on the Rain and the
Winds, of the Months of June and July,
during the last eight Years, and on the In-
fluence of tliese Meteorological Phenomena
on human Health. By James G. Tatem, Esq.,
Member of the Loudon Meteorological So-
ciety . - - - - 350

Notes on the Weather, in Switzerland, during
May, June, July, and August, 1831 ; and at
Rome, during Nov. and Dec. 1831, and Jan.
and Feb. 1832. By W, Spence, Esq. - 353

REVIEWS.

The British Naturalist; or. Sketches of the
more interesting Productions of Britain and
the surrounding Sea, in the Scenes which they
inhabit; and with relation to the General
Economy of Nature, and the Wisdom and
Power of its Author - - - 49

Transactions of the Natural History Society of
Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle
upon Tyne - - - - 71

A Manual of the Land and Freshwater Shells
of the British Islands, with coloured Plates of
every Species. By W.Turton, M.D. -175

A Flora of Berwick upon Tweed. By George
Johnston, M.D. &c. Vol. II. Cryptogamous
Plants 178

Reise en Brasilien. By Dr. C. F. P. von Martins
and Dr. J. B. von Spix - - - 181

Fauna Boreali-Americana, or the Zoology of

the Northern Parts of British America
Part II., containing the Birds. By W. Swain-
son, Esq. F.R.S., and John Richardson, Esq.
M.D. F.R.S. &c. - - -360

Insect Miscellanies. [Understood to be by Pro-
fessor Rennie.] - _ - 364

The Botanic Annual ; or. Familiar Illustrations
of the Structure, Habits, Economy, Geo-
graphy, Classification, and Principal Uses of
Plants, with Notices of the Way in which
they are affected by Climate and Seasons, and
a short Sketch of Coniferae. By Robt. Mudie,
Author of " The British Naturalist," &c. 369

Catalogue of Works on Natural History, lately
published, with some Notice of those con-
sidered the most interesting to British Natu-
ralists . 73. 186. 373. 441. 535. 647. 698

Literary NoUcea - - 76. 189. 377. 443. 713

Zoology
Botany
Meteorology

COLLECTANEA.

~ 77. 273. 379. 651. 000
- 87.000

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Foreign Notices - - - 92

Natural History in Foreign Countries - 444
Natural History in the English Counties - 538
Natural History in Scotland - - 569

Natural Hisiory in Ireland - - 576

Monthly Calendar of Nature for Scotland - 97

Hints for Improvements ... 587
Retrospective Criticism - 98. 193. 292. 393. 487.
588. 673. 714
Queries and Answers 104. 202. 396. 494. 678. 765
Obsequy. By John F. M. Dovaston, A.M., of
Westfelton, near Shrewsbury . - 111

Index to Books reviewed and noticed
General Index . . -

-771
.772

Vll

LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.

QUADRUPEDS.

No. Page

42, 43, 44. 5(mia synd&ctyla, or Ungka ape of

Sumatra - ... 132, 133. 139

91. The Fezzan ram - . - 451

92. The M^ of the Chinese . - 463

93. a. Griffin ; 93. b, tapir - - 465

BIRDS.
S3. A rare kind of the goose family - 80

63. A pair of the reed warbler (Curriica

arundinacea Brisson), with nest - 310

97. The nuthatch (Sitta europje'^a L.) - 488

102. The wryneck (Funx Torquilla L.) - 568

Scale of the notes of the song of the

willow wren - - - 581

126. Windpipe of the goosander (3/^rgus

Merganser L.) . - - 766

127. Windpipe of the red-breasted goosan-

der (M^rgus serrktor L.) - - 766

128. Windpipe of the smew (Jtf^rgus albel-

lusZ.) . . .766

FISHES.

2. The Cili^ta glauca of Couch . 16

3. Spanish bream (5p^ru8 L. Erfthri.

nus C.) • - . 17

4t Corkwing (iabrus L. gibbus L.) - 17

6. Smooth perch (Perca Ch&nnus C.) - 20
5. 7. Dusky perch (P^rca L. robfista L.) 18. 21
8. Spanish mackarel (Sc6mber L. macu.

latus C.) . . - 22

' 9, 10. Mud lamprey (Petrom^zon cae^cus) 23

64. The elleck (Trlgla Ciiculus) - . 312

65. Pellucid ophidium (Ophidium pellh-
cidum Couch) . . - 313

A mode of fishing in China - - 447
LkhTus mscus L. ? (the scale-rayed
wrass)

122.

. 742

REPTILE.
116. Siren /acert'ina

79.

85.
104.
105.

106.

107.

loa

109.
120.

76.

77.
78.

MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.
Sections of the heart of Octopus vul-

31

- 40

207

344

The hearts of the Cephalopoda
Veins garnished with glandular bodies
Tfethys /eporlna - - .

Heart and intestinal organs of Teredo
nav^lis ...

Minute blood-red worms attached to
the inner surface of the windpipe
of a pheasant - - -

bed. Veiled shells ; e /, cockles j
g. Pinna fr&gilis ; h, Carin&ria vi-
trea : i, Vhnus Chibne ; k, Merita
canrena ; /, TYbchus
Plankria corniita Mm. - 344. 429. 678

E\)lis rufibranchialis Johnston - 428

a and b, Spirula Peronw of Lamarck -
abed e/. Views and sections of a bone
of the cuttle fish ...

Section of a pearl exhibiting its struc-
ture .....
a b. Two views of our native cowry

(Cyprae^a europae^a)
Plan6rbis communis
The S41p£e (or Dag^sse of J9flfnA-*)
Sowerby's slug (Limax Sow^rbyj Fer.)

CIRRI'PEDES.
A species of ifepas cast on shore at

Liverpool . . . _

L^pas anatffera, the bernacle
a, Lhpas anatffera, a smaller but more

perfect figure ...

612

618

694

POLYPUS.

110. C(5ryne glandulbsa JwAH5/on

CRUSTACEOUS ANIMALS.
99. Praniza fuscata Johnston

RADIATED ANIMALS.
29. Lucernaria aurfcuia
58. Actinia Tu^diiB

344

631

- 521

163

INSECTS.

Coleopterous.

tN«. ~ Page

38, 39. Remarkable excrescence on the

eye of Staphyllnus hirtus - - 105

66, Palissusmicroc^phalus L. ; a, natural

size ; b, magnified - - 319

68. ScarabEB'^us macropus, kangaroo beetle 320

70. Mormolyce phyllodes Hagenbach - 322

71. Chiasognathus Grantw Stephens . 323
90. Scarabae^us Atetichus sicer - . 450

94. Caldndra palmarum, female imago - 466

95. a, Caldndra palmarum, male imago ;

b, larva j e, pupa ; rf, cocoon - 467

96. a, Caldndra sacchari ; c, pupa ; rf, fol.

licle or cocoon ; e, larva - - 468

96. i, A variety of Caldndra sacchari - 468

Lepidopterous.

72. Cblias Edtisrt, white-clouded yellow

variety - - - . 332

73. Hipp&rchifl Galathfea var., black and |

but slightly marbled - . 335

74. o, Poly6mmatus I'caru5, com. blue - 338

74. b, Hipparchia Galathfea, marbled white 338
117. a b, 118. e d, Limenltis Camillo, and a

black variety of it, the upper and

under side of each . 667, 668

119. a. The pupa case of probably a species

ofPs5^che - - - 685

119. 6, Pupa case and pupa of possibly Pen-

thophera nigricans . . 685

119. c. Pupa case of Psyche nitid^lla HUb-

ner . . . -685

119. d, Fsfche radi^lla Curtis . -685

122. Argynnis Adippg ? var.

123. Argynnis Agl^i« var. Charl6tta ? .

124. Melitae^a Sil§ne ? var.

125. Himalayan admiral butterfly

HVMENOPTEROUS.

34. Trichiosbma lucbrum and its cocoon

40. Microgaster glomer^tus and its meta-

morphoses

41. Caterpillars of OdynJ'rus found in a

booK - - - .

98. Transformations of a dragon fly

Strepsipterous.

69. St^lops Kirbii Leach

Dipterous.

45. ripula imperious, with a detached

side-view of its head -

46. Xyl6phagus macuia.tus, with the an-

tennae of X. ater

47. Tabknus ^aurlnus ...

48. L^ptis distigma, male

49. Therfeva, a species of .

50. M^das lusit&nicus, wing and antenna

of - - - - 160

51. J?ombylius cruciktus, male - . 160

52. .<4silus chrysitis ... jgi

53. H^bos muscJirius - . . i^j

54. £'mpis opaca . . - 161

55. Tachydrbmia fascikta; and 3 forms of

antenna - - . . jqq

56. C^rtus gfbbus - - - - 162

57. Stratiomys furcita, female ; and head

of S. concinna, male - . 162

67. Di6psis macrophthalma Dalman . 32O
103. Ocular footstalk and eve of the Di6p-

sis macrophthilma ' . . 592

yi'CARUS.

75. A species of .4'carus ? which infests

butterflies ... . 33^

TREES AND SHRUBS.
1. Tea tree of Paraguay . . 8

80, 81, Cotyledons and primordial leaves

of the ^"^cer Pseudo-Platanus i. 346, 347
89. Tabernsemontana alternifolia - 449

HERBACEOUS PLANTS.

30. Lathrae'^a Squamiria, its parasitic

tuber - - - - 46

31. longitudinal section of its leaf 47

749
750
751
752

85

108

109
518

321

- 157

159
159
160
160

Vlll

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

No. , Page

32. Latbrae a Squamana, transverse sec-
tion of its leaf - - - 48

35. A variety of Senfecio vulgJiris - 87

36. et and /S, Varieties of Cineraria integri-

fblia - - . . 88

82. Nucule of the Chara vulgaris L. - 348
86.abcdefg, P^ris quadrifolia Z,., and

parts oC it - - - 430

86. *, Trill! Uijlier^ctumZ. . - - 4^0

GEOLOGY.

59. Diagram of a chain of hills - - 167

61. Sketch of the volcano, Stromboli - 263

6!^. Map exhibiting the relative situations

of the volcanic islands Santorino,

Therasia, Hiera, Little Kan-..tioi,

and Black Island, formed m 1707 - 272

87. Singular subsidence, with a fossil

stag's horn, in the chalk measures
near Meredon, France - - 446

100. Chalk in Norfolk as perforated by Tu-

bicolae - - - - 545

No. Page

101. Fossilised fish from a stone quarry
near Stratford upon Avon

111. Mount Vesuvius and part of Monte

Somma ...

112. Volcano in the Island of Volcano

113. The volcanic mountain, Hecla -

114. Geological map of the parishes of

Eccles, Greenlaw, Polwarth, and
Longformacus, in Berwickshire -

115. Diagram exhibitive of the arrange-

ment of strata in a part of Berwick-
shire - . - -

METEOROLOGY.
129. A pluviometer or rain gauge

MISCELLANEOUS.
37. Various forms of crystals of snow

83. Ground-plan of the domed conserv-

atory for carnivorous animals, in
the Surrey Zoological Gardens

84. Elevation of the same conservatory -

549

635
636

638

643

- 769

90

404
405

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

A. B., 276. 384 ; A. B.C., 591;
A. G., 98 ; Albert, 764. 768 ;
Aliquis, 657.769 J AUis.Thos.,
589. 728,729. 732, 733. 753. 767;
Appleby, S., 558; A.Il.B.,553;
Aristophilus, 590; A. R. Y.,
76. [112]. [208]. 372. 678. 732 ;
A Subscriber, 203. 734. 754.
761 ; A. X., 672.

Babington, Charles C, B.A.
F.L.S., 74. 89. 327 ; Bakewell,
Robert, 434 ; Barker, M. J.,
725; B. B. P., 494 ; Bennett,
Geo., F.L.S. M.R.C.S., &c.,
97. 131. 255.486: B., Lay ton-
stone, 396; ^Ombjrx, 688;
Bowman, J. K, F.L.S., 1 ;
Bree, Rev. W. T, A.M., 107,
108. 145. 200. 275. 330. 336.
36a 399. 489. 491. 496. 589.
593. 668. 673. 677. 715. 730.
733. 747. 753, 754. 760 ; Brown,
John,M.D., F.L.S., 99 ; Byer-
ley. Sir John, F.R.S.L. 172.
201. 494. 588.

C.,394; Cacale, 91; Carr, J.,
296, 297. 396; Cattus, 717;
C.,Birmingham,283; Christy,
Wm., jun., 543; Clarke, W.
B., 101; Clayton, Geo., 81 ;
Couch, Jonathan, F.L.S., 15.
291. 311. 674. 730. 736, 737.
743; C. P., 102. 110. 671;
C. P. (Surrey), 756 ; Creed,
Rev. Henry, 550. 653; Curtis,
John,F.L.S.87.

Dale, J. C, A.M. F.L.S., &c.
&c., 249. 685; Davis, A. H.,
F.L.S., 87.245; D. C, 211;
Dewhurst, Henry W^illiam,
214 ; Dickehut, H. T., Cu-
rator of the Botanic Gar-
den, St. Mary's College, Bal-
timore, 453; D. N., 105. 202.
208. 301 ; Doubleday, E., 394.
767; Dovaston, John Free-
man Milward, A.M., 84. Ill,
112, 113, 147. 293. 299. 381.
425. 497. 661 ; Draper, J, W.,
164.262.532.632; D. S,205;
Duncan, George, 573.

Edgworth, Thos., 398 ; E. P. T.,
397; E. S., 273.

Faldermann, F., 4 ; Farmer, J.
C, 209. 275. 493. 495. 716;
Fennell, James, 763.

G. A., 393 ; G. and H., 128 ;
Gardiner, William, 576; Gib-
son, Samuel, 555; G. J., 31.
611; Gordon, Wm., F.L.S.,

Surgeon, 24. 118. 405. 507;
Greaves, John, 549 ; Green,
J., 208; Greenhow, E, H.,
104. 393. 495. 566.

H., 131 ; H., London, 110 ; H.
B. (Blois), 287. 735.748; H.
B. Somerset, 731 ; Henslow,
H., 588; Henslow, Rev. J. S.,
A.M., King's Professor of
Botany in the University of
Cambridge, 88. 294. 302. 346.
348. 400. 429 490. 494. 546.
755 ; Higgins, W. M.,F.G.S.,
164. 262. 532. 632 ; Hill, Wal-
ter Henry, SO; Howden,
John, 386 ; Hoy, J. D., 278,
279. 281 ; Huish, Robert, 604.

J. A. H., Oxford, 104. 110. 196.
538; J. A. H., Rington, He-
refordshire, 283; J. C, 384;
J. D. M., 195. 577 ; J. D.,
senior, 659; J. E. L., 522.
758; Jenyns, Rev. Leonard,
F.L.S., 104. 302; J. G. (Great
Marlow), 291 ; J. G. (Stoke
Newington), 309 ; J. J., 277.
295; J. M., Chelsea, 76, 77,
78, 79. 83. 91. 304. 442. 448.
489. 660. 687. 689 ; J. M., Phil-
adelphia, 452, 453. 455 ; John-
ston, George, M.D., 43. 163.
344. 428. 520. 631. 678; John-
ston. Sir A., 448 ; Jordan.W.
R., 109. 261, 282.284, 285. 288 ;
J. R.,458. 577; J. S. K., 654;
Juvenis, 85; J. W., 380;

L. J., 104.

Main, J , 674 ; Mancuniensis,
717; M.F.,396; Moggridge,
John H., 446, 447 ; Morris,
Francis Orpen, 733; Moul-
son, Richard, M.D.,765; M.
P., 294. 297. 301. 495. 723. 738.
74a 768 ; M. R., 555.

N., 73. 89 ; Newman, Edward,
109. 204. 252. 399. 488. 495.
654.

O., 111. 204. 316. 495. 544; O.,
(Clapton) 754; Observator,
401 ; Ornis, 288.

Pamplin, James, 288; Parry,
John, 103. 293 ; Phillips, Sir
R., 103.

R. B., 388; R. B. B., 565; R.
J.M.,770; Rennie, J., A.M.
A.L.S., Professor of Natural
History in King's College,
London, 102, 103. [110]. 299.
393 ; Rusticus, 276. 601.

Salmon, J. D, 415. 673. 675.679 ;

Scolopax Rustfcola, 279. 284.
289 ; Scott, Alexander, 666 ;
Scott, George, 770; Sells,
William, M.R.C.S., 452.470.
483. 651 ; Sigma,747. 753. 769 ;
Smith, Richard, senior Sur-
geon to the Bristol Infirmary,
293 ; Somerset^nsis, 282 ;
Spence, W., F.L.S., &c. &c.
353. 655. 689 ; Stephens, J. F.,
F.L.S., 394; Stewart, John
v., 578 ; S. T., 111. 678 ; S.T.
Stokeferry, 763 ; S. T. P., 398.
681,682; S.W., 539; Swain-
son, W., F.R.S. &c., [207],
r208].
Tatem, James G., Member of
the London Meteorological
Society, 350 ; Taylor, R. C,
292. 458 ; T. B., 558 ; T. C,
206 ; T. G., Chipping Nor-
ton, Oxon., 283. 686. 733;
T. G., Clitheroe, Lancashire,
82. 204. 290. 294. 297. 303. 654.
663. 680. 683. 738. 740. 770;
Thompson, Thomas, 77. 197.
295. 297 ; Thomson, Robert
Dundas, CM. and M.D.,637;
Thomson, William, 755. 757 ;
Timbs, John, 763 ; T.K., 299.
397. 577. 731, 732. 735. 770 ;
Turner, Henry, 195. 204. 285.
728. 734. 766 ; Tyro, 686.
U., Cambridge, 397.
Ventris, E., 205, 206; Viator,
543; Vigors, N. A., Secretary
to the Zoological Society,
[109]. [206].
W. A. B. 149 ; Wailes, George,
156J; Wallace, J. 548 ; War-
wick, J. E. 305 ; Waterton,
Charles, Author of " Wan-
derings in South America,"
&c., 9. 142. 233. 241. 412. 488.
512. 515. 590. 673. 676. 679.
684. 727 ; W. B. B. W. 745 ;
Weatherill, Thomas, M.D.
339 ; Weaver, R., 669 ; West-
wood, J. O., F.L.S. &c., 206.
301. 318. 487. 592 ; W. G.,.569;
W . L., Selkirkshire, 295. 400 ;
Woodward, Samuel, 86. 303.
545. 762.
X. . . . - 674
Yarrell, William, F.L.S. and
Z.S. - - 100.384.598
Zoophilus - . - 722
!{:>... 75.181
^ Ht - - - 564

r. (Moray) - - QOf

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY,

JANUARY, 1832,

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I. RemarJes on the Luminosity of the Sea By J. E. Bowman,

Esq. F.L.S,

The valuable observations of Mr. Westwood on the lumi-
nosity of the sea (Vol. IV. p. 505.), induce me to think it
worth while to place on record an extract from my private
journal, which illustrates the view he has taken, and may pos-
sibly assist in establishing at least one cause of this well known
and beautiful phenomenon. It is as follows : — " On treading
upon a tuft of tang [sea-weed] in our way down to the boat, it
•shot out in every direction interrupted rays of phosphoric light,
like a star of artificial firework. This beautiful effect we repeat-
edly produced by stamping on various tufts to force out the
water ; and afterwards, while sitting in the boat, waiting for the
ferryman, we amused ourselves by dabbling our hands and sticks
in the water, which, when agitated, was more highly illumi-
nated than I had ever before observed it. I was soon awai-e
that the luminous matter /«?/ ?ij)on the surface: for, after a little
agitation and dispersion of the surface water from around my
fingers, the effect was much diminished ; and, when I ceased
disturbing it, the light entirely disappeared. The boat swam,
as it were, in a sea of liquid fire, the ripple round its sides
and the dash of the oars being sometimes brilliant beyond
conception, and of a bluish phosphorescent light. It would
seem that the luminous matter was not equally diffused over
the strait : for it varied much in intensity in different parts of
the passage; and, as we approached the Caernarvonshire
shore, the contact of the oars produced very little light."
Vol. V. — No. 23. b

2 Remarks on tlie Lianinosity of the Sea,

This extract refers to a passage across the Menai Strait,
between Garth Ferry and Bangor, in company with my friend
Wilson of Warrington, about eleven o'clock in the evening
of the 27th of July, 1830. The day had been very hot, the
night was dark for that season, and the sea perfectly smooth
and calm. I regretted that I had neither leisure nor oppor-
tunity to bring away some of the water for microscopical
examination : but we had no phial at hand, and were quite
exhausted with a long and difficult, though delightful, ramble
over the sea rocks between Red Wharf Bay and Penmon
Point, and thence to Beaumaris, along the loose sand and
shingles of the coast ; and were, besides, loaded with a rich
harvest of plants, which required all our time and atten-
tion. But, though not then a stranger to the phenomenon, its
singularly vivid appearance struck me forcibly ; and I was
quite convinced that the luminous matter floated, as it were,
upon the surface like a thin coat of oil, for it was dispersed
or repelled by the motion of a stick or the finger, and was
confined to the circumference of an irregular circle around
them. I can scarcely agree with Mr. Westwood that it is
rendered visible by mere contact with the atmosphere, since it
must always be in contact from its lying on the surface ; yet
we have abundant proof that it is only excited by disturb-
ance. It struck me strongly, at the time, that it was elicited
hy friction, to which, I see, others have attributed it ; yet it
must be as sensibly alive to that agent as the iodide of nitro-
gen, for it was produced when I leaned over the boat and blew
upon the water.

It is a well known fact, that dead fishes and MoUusca ge-
nerate phosphorescence during the incipient stages of putre-
faction ; and chemical experiments have ascertained that it is
increased, if it be not in some way caused, by the immersion
of such substances in a solution of some neutral salt. In sea
water, therefore, it is probably produced by muriate of soda
[common salt] ; and may not its situation on the surface be
explained by its uniting with the oleaginous matter disen-
gaged from decomposing animal substances, which, in a qui-
escent state of the sea, would rise and float like a film ? I
throw this out as mere conjecture, but it may help the philo-
sophic enquirer to solve the problem.

This luminous matter, however, which often marks the
wake of a vessel in the night, and crests the waves with a
splendour not their own, is certainly not the only kind of
phosphorescence which the ocean exhibits. During the mild
nights of summer and autumn, innumerable Medus<^ (the
glowworms of the deep) may often be seen spangling its dark

BemarJcs on the Luminosity of the Sea, 3

bosom, or lying on our shores, left by the recedmg wave. I
can never forget with what intense delight my friend Dovaston
and myself once watched them glide past us on a midnight
sail from Oban to Fort William ; nor how willingly, in those
regions of romance, philosophy alternately resigned her sway
to the brownie or the kelpie. But I think, with Mr. West-
wood, these " living fires of ocean " are not the primary
cause of the phenomenon ; and that, until some direct and
well-conducted experiments establish the fact that their lu-
minosity is an inherent and essential condition of their organ-
isation, we may suppose it to be of the nature already men-
tioned, which may adhere to their surface as they swim among
it, or may constitute their food ; and, as such, be seen through
their transparent substance : and, if friction be supposed ne-
cessary to exhibit it, this condition is probably fulfilled during
the process of digestion and assimilation.

One word more " on the suppositions that have been raised
as to the objects of its existence." Those alluded to by your
correspondent are, at least, unsatisfactory ; and, as he has not
given the ingenious and highly probable conjectures of Dr.
MaccuUoch {Description of the Western Islands, vol. ii. p. 201.),
I shall subjoin them. He supposes " the property of phos-
phorescence has been conferred on many fishes, and appa-
rently in the greatest degree on the molluscous animals, whose
astonishing powers of reproduction, and whose insensibility
nearly approaching to vegetable life, seem to mark them as
having been principally created for the supply of the more
perfect tribes, to enable them to pursue their own prey, as
\vell as for disclosing themselves to their pursuers, either
during the darkness of the night, or in those deep recesses of
the ocean impervious to the solar ray." He further adds : —
" The luminous property of dead fish is, perhaps, calculated
for similar wise ends. Tliese, sinking to the bottom, become
capable of attracting the attention of the deep-water fishes;
answering the double purpose of food to these tribes, and
admitting the removal, as in the air, of carcasses which might
produce, even in those depths, inconveniences similar to those
which bodies in a state of putrefaction cause on the surface
of the earth. It is also not improbable that the desire which
fishes appear to show of following luminous bodies arises
from this natural instinct. Herrings are often caught in con-
siderable abundance by a fly or any bright substance, often
by new-tinned hooks, which they seize with great avidity.

J. E. Bowman.
7'he Court near Wrexham., Nov. 7. 1831.

B 2 .

4 Further Account of a Bussian

Art. II. Further Account of a Russian Natural History Expedi-
tion in Brazil, during the Seven Years preceding Jpril,lSSl. By
M. F. Faldermann, Curator of the Imperial Botanic Garden,
St. Petersburgh.

(^Continued from Vol. IV. p. 403.)
Sir,

In the close of the communication which I made to you on
April 18. 183i. (see Vol. IV. p. 403.), I promised to supply
some account of the plants which M. Riedel brought alive
from the Brazilian empire to the Imperial Botanic Garden :
that promise I shall now endeavour to fulfil.

On account of M. Riedel's uncommonly quick passage
(namely, in sixty-four days) from Rio de Janeiro to St.
Petersburgh, above two thirds of his plants were alive on his
arrival at the Botanic Garden ; and, in fact, were in a con-
siderably better state than even many plants which we re-
ceived from France and Great Britain : but we must in a
great measure attribute this very successful transportation,
considering the great many ineligibilities and inconveniences
on board a ship on such a voyage, to M. RiedePs great
exertions in attending the plants over sea. We must like-
wise remember the kind and obliging master of the vessel
Captain Kromtschenko, who came with his cargo for the im-
perial Russian North-west American Company, from their
colonies at Sitcha, and took charge of the plants at Rio
de Janeiro ; for the great care and assistance he bestowed on
M. Riedel and his plants, he received from the Emperor
of Russia a reward of 1000 rubles bco asig. (40/. sterling),
and it was mentioned in the public papers. I notice this only
for the benefit of a great many other captains, who are usu-
ally by no means the most obliging persons to people at sea.

The following is a list of the remarkable plants we received
in the autumn of the year 1830, from the Brazils, into the Im-
perial Botanic Garden, as collected and brought home by
the botanical traveller, L. Riedel ; —

Acacia amazomcdRiedel. Bignonw, sp. from Rio Cassia, 3 sp.

-(4ca,cia, sp. Madera. Clusia, 2 sp.

Amaryllis, sp. Bignonfa, 3 sp. Chiococca, sp.

^ristolochia, 5 sp. Bombax, 2 species, the Coccoloba, 5 sp.

Artocarpiis, sp. stems of which are Capparis, sp.
A'jida brasiliensis. extremely prickly. Compositae, shrubby

Ajieiba TibourboUy from Breclemey<?r«, sp. species.

the river Amazon, lianisteria, 3 sp. Cnemidostachys, sp^

Alsodea physiphora, Begom'a, 2 sp. Crinum, sp.

yiroideae, 7 sp. Clethra, sp. Caroline«, sp.

Bougainville^, sp. Comaspermum, sp. Cecr6p2«, sp.

Bauhinia, 3 sp. Co^m, sp. Cissampelos, 3 sp.

Bignoma tomentosa Cratae'va Tapfa? Costus, sp.

Jttiedel. Cassel/« serrata. Cactus, 6 new sp.

Natural History Expedition in Brazil,

Dichorizandra thyrsi-
flora?

Diosc6re«, sp.

DorstenfaCeratosanthes.

Dorstenifl! arifolia.

Dbrstenf« «rif61ia, var.
)8.

Dorsten^a, shrubby sp,

Dorsteni«, sp.

Erythrina, sp.

-E'chites, sp.

Erythroxylon, sp.

Euphoria, sp.

Eugenia, sp.

JE'uphorbia, sp.

Eu^Bibnum Ayapana

Franclsc<?« uniflora.

JFlcus, 2 sp.

FagarUy sp.

i^ilices, 36 sp. ; amongst
which are 4 shrubby sp.
4 Aneimia, 1 Marattia,
1 Diplazium Riedel-
idnum Fischer, As-
plenium Nidus, Aspl-
dium serra Fischer^
&c.^

Galipea, 4 sp.

Gouania, sp.

Gudrea, sp.

Gesnena, 3 sp.

Gomphia, sp.

Gambogia, sp.

Geoffr6y«, 2 sp.

Gardenia, 3 sp.

Herreri« stellata,

lonidium, 2 sp.

Joncquetia paniculata.

Justici«, 6 sp.
rnga,2 sp.
Kielmeyer«, sp.
Z/aurus, sp.

Lycopodium, sp. *

Leguniinosae, 6 s|).
Myristica Bicaiba.
J/yrtus, 8 sp.
i^feliaceae, sp.
Malpighia, sp.
Malpighidcecs ? sp.
Mutisia, sp.
Mikanfa, 2 sp.
Melastoma, sp.
Marica, sp.

Magnolia, sp. (Talauma)
Mdnihoty sp. (the true

Cassava of South

America.)
\Janipha Aldnikot, see

Gardener^ s Magazine^

vol. vii. p. 470.].
Mangifera indica V
Maina brasiliensis.
Noisettia, sp.
Novum genus.
Neottia, 3 sp.
Neottia rufescens Fi&ch.
Oljra, sp.
O'xalis fruticosa.
O'xalis Barrelieri.
Orchideap,52sp.,amongst

which is a new sp. of

Prescotia.
Petrea volubilis.
Poljgala, 2 sp.
Paullinia, sp.

Panax, sp.

Petiveria tetrandra.

Psidium, 2 sp.

Pathos^ 8' sp.

Pitcairnia, 4 sp.

Piper, 5 sp.

Peperomia, 4 sp.

Pubiaceae, 9 sp.

Phexia, 3 sp.

Phamnese, 3 sp.

Rhizophora Mangle.

Rollinia, sp.

Roitp ditty sp.

Solandra, 2 sp..

Sapindaceae, sp..

Schnellia, sp.

xS'olanum, 2 sp.

Seriana, 2 sp.

^milax, sp.

Scitamineae, 17 species;
amongst which we had
lately Phrynium cylin-
dricum in flower.

Seafortifl, sp.

Tferebintaceae, 3 sp.

Temstrce^mia, sp.

Theobroma Cacao.

Triopteris, 2 sp.

Theophrasta, 2 sp.

Trigonia glabra.

Trigonia, 2 sp.

Turn era, 2 sp.

Trichilia ^teleaefolia.

Tillandsia, 12 sp.

Tradescantia, 2 sp.

Vanilla^ sp.

Vellozia, 2 sp.

List of Palms brought at the same time, by M. Riedel, from
the Brazils : —

Bactris Mardja.
Bactris acanthocarpa.
Desmoncus polyacan-

thus.
G«6noma elegans

Geonoma Pohlia;za. Acrocomia sclerocarpa.

Geonoma acaulis ? Maximiliana regia.

Astrocaryum acaule Diplothemium mariti-
Astrocaryum Ayri. mum.

Astrocaryum campestre? Syagru^ cocoid.es ?

The duty to which M. Riedel bound himself, during his
travels in the interior of the Brazils, was, to collect for
Russia, principally plants to form a Brazilian herbarium, and
also as many seeds and live plants as possible for the Imperial
Botanic Garden at St. Petersburgh. The principal of the
conditions of his engagement was, to have a certain share of

B 3

6 Further Accou7it of a Russian

the whole collection of dried plants. By this means he ob-
tained a considerable herbarium of his own ; and this, added
to the collection which he made at his own expense in the
province of Bahia, before he entered the service of Russia,
gave him altogether a herbarium of about 8000 species of
Brazilian plants, and nearly 60,000 specimens. This very
rich and interesting herbarium M. lliedel offered, on his
arrival at St. Petersburgh, to the museum of the Imperial
Botanic Garden, where it is at present deposited, for the use
of science. The Emperor Nicholas has been pleased to grant
him the sum of 12,000 rubles banc. asig. (480^. sterling), for
his great exertions and indefatigable perseverance during the
time of his travels for the Russian government; and the
emperor has also conferred on him the rank of a captain in
the Russian service. This gracious mark of distinction from
the sovereign will be of great service to him in his further
travels at the Brazils, that being a country where people of
government distinction are in general more respected.

M. Riedel remained during the winter at the Imperial
Botanic Garden, arranging his herbarium for the museum of
that establishment.

On the 14tli of February, 1831, an order was signed by
the Emperor Nicholas, consisting of the following articles : —

" I. That the botanist L. Riedel shall be attached to the Imperial Botanic
Garden, and shall depart immediately again to the Brazils, to collect there,
for the said establishment, principally live plants, of all scarce and new
kinds ; also a herbarium, and any thing belonging to natural history.

" His appointment, as long as he shall travel at the Brazils, shall be each
year 5000 rub. bco. asig.; and after his return to St. Petersburgh to be
employed at the garden for the salary of 3000 rub. bco. asig. annually.

" II. He shall receive for the voyage from St. Petersburgh to the Bra-
zils, from the cabinet of His Imperial Majesty 500 ducats.

" HI. He shall receive the sum of 5000 rubles bco. asig. annually, for the
expenses of travelling in the forementioned country.

" He shall receive the sum of GOOO rub. bco. asig. at once, to buy instru-
ments, maps, books, and all things necessary for his journey into the
Brazils.

" He shall have 5000 rubles bco. asig., to buy, at Rio de Janeiro, three
slaves to attend him on his excursions ; and shall receive an annual sum
of 900 rubles bco. asig. for their maintenance.

" IV. A painter from the Imperial Academy of Arts, and a gardener
from the Imperial Botanic Garden, shall be joined to M. Riedel, and the
first vessel going to the Brazils shall take them there.

" V. The money to maintain the aforesaid shall be taken from the
funds of the Imperial Botanic Garden ; and, in case it should not suffice, it
shall be reported to the minister of His Imperial Majesty's court, who
shall draw the necessary sums from the cabinet of the Emperor.

" The expedition shall be under the general direction and control of
Dr. Fischer, the director of the Imperial Botanic Garden, who shall re-
ceive all the collections for that establishment, and who has to report on

Natural History Expedition in Brazil, 7

them, as well as on the further proceedings of the travellers, to the minis-
ter of this Imperial court."

According to that most noble order of the Emperor,
M. Riedelleft St.Petersburgh in the beginning of March, 1831,
and is now on his way to the Brazils. He proposed to him-
self to go first to London, to buy there some of the necessary
books, maps, instruments, &c., for the use of his new voyage;
but I have since received letters from M. Riedel, informing
me that he had made his preparations at Hamburgh, and
started thence direct to the Brazils, where, no doubt, he will
by this time have safely arrived.

It is proposed that the painter shall attend M. Riedel on
his travels in the interior of the Brazils, but that the gardener
shall remain at Rio de Janeiro, to receive the plants and
seeds which will be sent by M. Riedel out of the interior parts
of the country ; and it is to be the gardener's business to culti-
vate the plants, and prepare them for shipping. He is charged
to send, by every opportunity, to St. Petersburgh, boxes of
plants, herbariums, collections of different species of wood,
seeds, &c. ; but the main collection of the more rare plants,
particularly of palms, is to remain at Rio de Janeiro, and to
be eventually brought over, under the especial care of the
above-mentioned gardener.

We now, therefore, entertain hopes of receiving a good
many of those plants which we at present so much admire
in the books descriptive of that rich country, from the pens of
some noted travellers. Under such promising circumstances,
we may have one day the pleasure to see some of the enor-
mous stoves of the Imperial Botanic Garden filled with a
beautiful Brazilian vegetation. No doubt they will prosper,
as many of the Brazilian and other tropical plants already in
the establishment, under the 59th degree of northern latitude,
thrive uncommonly well ; and, although the garden has only
been about nine years in existence, we have gathered already
fruits of several Eugenz<^, Jamhbsce, Uvariae, Mus<^, Psidia,
. Euphoriae, Xanthochymus, Chrysophylla, Sterculia nobilis,
Sarcocephalus esculentus, Cinnamomum dulce, &c.

I hope subsequently to be able to give you some further
relations of the proceedings of M. Riedel at the Brazils ; and
remain, dear Sir, your most obedient servant,

F. Faldermann.
Imperial Botanic Garden, St.Petersburgh,
August 10. 1831.

B 4

8 RiiSsian Natural History Expedition iri Brazil,

Paraguay Tea, and the Tea Tree of Paraguay , the Plex paragu aiensis,
of the botanist St. Hilaire. {fig. 1 .) — In M.
Faldermann's interesting communication (in
Vol. IV. p. 394 — 403.) on the plants of Brazil,
mention is several times made of the tea tree of
Paraguay. On this account we beg to present
the following interesting extract, relating to it,
which is taken from the fourth volume of the
Seminario de Buenos Ayres of Azara. M. Fal-
dermann remarks (p. 401.) that it should be
spelled tea of Paraquay, and /Mex paraquaien-
sisj but this may be deemed doubtful out of
Russia, where q and g are said to be often con-
vertible: —

" The tea tree of Paraguay, called in the
country yerva mate, is one of the most useful
trees in Paraguay, to which it is nearly peculiar
It is found growing spontaneously, intermingled
with the other native trees, in the forests which
cover the banks of the rivers and streams which fall into the Parana and
Uruguay, as well as the sources of the rivers Ipane and Jejui. The tree
is large, and often equals in size the common orange tree ; but in the places
where the leaf is regularly gathered, it becomes stunted, from the limbs
being cut every two or three years, but not oftener, owing to an opinion
that this time is requisite to season the leaves, which do not fall off in
winter. The trunk is about a foot in diameter ; the bark is smooth and
whitish ; the boughs, which spring upwards like those of the laurel, are leafy
and tufted. The leaf is elliptic, cuneiform, from 4 to 5 in. long; thick,
glossy, crenated, of a dark green above, and paler below. The petiole is
of a dark red , and half an inch long. Its flowers are produced in umbels
of thirty or forty flowers each, with four petals, with the same number of
stamens. The berry is red, very smooth, and of the size of a small pea.

" The method of preparing the leaves is as follows : — A hurdle of
long poles is constructed, in the form of a cylindrical vault, which they call
barbaqua ; under this a large fire is made, and the branches being placed
on the hurdle remain there till the leaves are sufficiently dry. After this
they remove the fire ; and on the hard and hot platform, after being swept
clean, they throw the branches, which they beat to separate the leaves.
In this each is assisted by a boy, called a quayno, who receives the pro-
portion of 25 lbs. of leaves for every bundle of branches he cleans.

" The leaves being separated from the branches, and prepared sufficiently
are next put into a large bag made of hides, which has the four upper
corners fixed to four large stakes placed in the ground, fitted to support a
considerable weight ; into this they put the leaves, and beat them down
with a pole, in the same way as the negroes of the West Indies pack their
cotton bags. When the bag is filled and packed hard, the mouth is sewed
up; and in this state, without farther preparation, the leaves are fit for use,
but not considered as seasoned till they are a few months old.

" We find, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, that this plant
was in common use throughout Paraguay ; and there can be no doubt but
the Indians of Monday taught it to the conquerors, from their being the
natives who lived in the vicinity of the forests. The quantity used by a
person who is fond of it is an ounce. The amount daily gathered by a la-
bourer is from four to twelve, and sometimes more, arrobas. There are
among the Creoles or mestizoes many who falsely charge the Paraguayans
with having exterminated the Indians by making them work at this labour.

These leaves are used in Paraguay, La Plata, Peru, and Quito, at all
hours of the day, by putting a handfiil into a kind of tea-pot called mate
(which has given its name to the herb), and from the spout of this the hot

Habits of the Barn Oxd. 9

liquid is imbibed. Some mix sugar with it, and others add a few drops of
lemon juice ; and by pouring fresh boiling water the infusion may be renewed.
200,000 arrobas, equal to five millions of pounds, are annually obtained
from Paraguay, 110 arrobas of which go to Chile, whence Lima and Quito
are supplied ; the rest is expended in the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres."
(Sent, de Buenos Ayres.^

" There are three kinds of it in its prepared state, though produced
but by one plant. Caa is the distinctive Indian appellation of the plant ;
and the three sorts are called caa-cuys, caa-mini, and caa-guazu, the
last being denominated by the Spaniards yerva de palos. The people of
South America attribute innumerable virtues to this plant. It is cer-
tainly aperient and diuretic; but the other qualities^ ascribed to it are
doubtful. Like opium, it produces some singular and contrary effects : it
gives sleep to the restless, and spirit to the torpid. Those who have once
contracted the habit of taking it, do not find it an easy matter to leave it
off, or even to use it in moderation ; though, when taken to excess, it brings
on similar disorders to those which are produced by the immoderate use of
strong liquors." (Wilcocke's History of Buenos Ayres, p. 494.)

A doubt has been expressed whether the /Mex, which M. Riedel "ob-
served to prevail in Brazil in various places, and which he denominates
/Mex paraguaiensis, may not rather be a species nearly allied to, but still
distinct from, that, and be the species which Dr. Martins has denominated
Cassine GongonhOy but which Mr. David Don has more accurately deno-
minated /Hex Gongonha* This is, however, a question in systematic
botany. In a popular view, it may be remarked that, as M. Riedel shows
(Vol. IV. p. 401.) both /Hex paraguaiensis and /Mex Gongonha to occur m.
Brazil, and also an additional species indicated by the name /Hex
nova species, the former two, and possibly all three, species are equally
applied or applicable to the supplying of that welcome beverage, tea.
While on this subject, it may not be amiss to notice, incidentally.

The Plants employed as Tea in different Countries : — In Mexico, Pso-
ralea (?) glandulosa ; in New Granada, Alstonia thece^oi^mh (Mutis), which
is said to be equal to the tea of China; in North America, Gualthen'a pro-
cumbens and iedum latifolium ; in Paraguay, /Hex paraguaiensis and /Hex
Gongonha ; in New Holland, Corrae^a alba ; in Kamtschatka, Pedicularis
lanata; in China, Camelh« Bohea and viridis, mixed with the leaves of
C. Sasanqua^ or oleifera, and sometimes with those of OHea fragrans. {Don^
in Lambert's Genus 'Pmus, and in Jameson's Journal.)

Art. III. The Habits of the Barn Otvl {Strix Jlammea L., Aluco
Jldmmeiis Fleming), and the Benefits it confers on Man, By
Charles Vv^aterton, Esq.

This pretty aerial wanderer of the night often comes into
my room ; and after flitting to and fro, on wing so soft and
silent that he is scarcely heard, he takes his departure from
the same window at which he had entered.

* From Dr. Walsh's Notices of Brazil (vol. ii. p. 172.) we learn that the town of Congonhas
do Campo, seated at the base of Congonhas, a rugged ridge of rocky mountains piled up to the
clouds, and also the Rio das Congonhas, a considerable stream about thirty yards across, derive
their name from the abundance of the congonha plant found there. It is used universally as tea.
" It grows in marshy places, and Patricio, my Indian guide, brought me some branches of it
from the banks of the river. It attains the size of an orange tree, and has somewhat of its air and
aspect. The leaves are dried, or rather roasted, on twigs before the fire, where they crackle like
laurel, and are then reduced nearly to powder, and kept in pots. It is used sometimes as a hot
and sometimes as a cold infusion. I have drunk it prepared in three ways : either an infusion of
the fresh leaves, or made with the dried leaves like China tea, or boiled with sugar and then
drained off. The clear infusion exactly resembles that of common green tea ; but it is insipid,
and has nothing of its flavour or odour, nor, as far as my feelings warranted me to say, of its
exhilarating or refreshing quality."

10 Habits of the Barn Owl,

I own I have a great liking for this bird ; and I have
offered it hospitality and protection on account of its persecu-
tions, and for its many services to me, — I say services, as
you will see in the sequel. I wish that any little thing I could
write or say might cause it to stand better with the world at
large than it has hitherto done : but I have slender hopes
on this score ; because old and deep-rooted prejudices are
seldom overcome ; and when I look back into the annals of
remote antiquity, I see too clearly that defamation has done
its worst to ruin the whole family, in all its branches, of this
poor, harmless, useful friend of mine.

Ovid, nearly two thousand years ago, was extremely severe
against the owl. In his Metamorphoses he says : —

" Foedaque fit volucris, venturi nuncia luctus,
Ignavus bubo, dirum mortalibus omen." *

In his Fasti he openly accuses it of felony : —

** Nocte volant, puerosque petunt nutricis egentes." f

Lucan, too, has hit it hard: —

" Et laetae jurantur aves, bubone sinistro :" J

and the Englishman who continued the Pharsalia says —
" Tristia mille locis Stygius dedit omina bubo." §

Horace tells us that the old witch Canidia used part of the
plumage of the owl in her dealings with the devil : —
" Plumamque nocturnae strigis. "||

Virgil, in fine, joined in the hue and cry against this in-
jured family : —

" Solaque culminibus ferali carmine bubo

Saepe queri, et longas in fletum ducere voces." 4-

In our own times we find that the village maid cannot
return home from seeing her dying swain, without a doleful
salutation from the owl : —

" Thus homeward as she hopeless went.
The churchyard path along.
The blast grew cold, the dark owl scream*d
Her lover's funeral song."

Amongst the numberless verses which might be quoted

* " Ul-omen'd in his form, the unlucky fowl,

Abhorr'd by men, and call'd a screeching owl." Garth's Trans.
+ " They fly by uight, and assail infants in the nurse's absence."
If " Even the ill-boding owl is declared a bird of good omen."
$ " The Stygian owl gives sad omens in a thousand places."
jl " A feather of the night owl."

4* " And, on her palace top.

The lonely owl with oft repeated scream

Complains, and spins into a dismal length

Her baleful shrieks." Trapp's Translation.

and its Benefits to Man. 1 1

against the family of the owl, I think I only know of one little
ode which expresses any pity for it. Our nursery maid used
to sing it to the tune of the Storm, " Cease rude Boreas,
blust'ring railer." I remember the first two stanzas of it : —

" Once I was a monarch's daughter.
And sat on a lady's knee ;
But am now a nightly rover,
Banish'd to the ivy tree.

Crying, hoo hoo, hoo hoo, hoo hoo,
Hoo hoo hoo, my feet are cold !

Pity me, for here you see me,
Persecuted, poor, and old.'*

I beg the reader's pardon for this exordium. I have intro-
duced it, in order to show how little chance there has been,
from days long passed and gone to the present time, of study-
ing the haunts and economy of the owl, because its unmerited
bad name has created it a host of foes, and doomed it to de-
struction from all quarters. Some few, certainly, from time
to time, have been kept in cages and in aviaries. But nature
rarely thrives in captivity, and very seldom appears in her
true character when she is encumbered with chains, or is to
be looked at by the passing crowd through bars of iron.
However, the scene is now going to change ; and I trust that
the reader will contemplate the owl with more friendly feelings,
and quite under different circumstances. Here, no rude
schoolboy ever approaches its retreat ; and those who once
dreaded its diabolical doings are now fully satisfied that it no
longer meddles with their destinies, or has any thing to do
with the repose of their departed friends. Indeed, human
wretches in the shape of body-snatchers seem here in Eng-
land to have usurped the office of the owl in our church-
yards ; " et vendunt tumulis corpora rapta suis." *

Up to the year 1813, the barn owl had a sad time of it at
Walton Hall. Its supposed mournful notes alarmed the
aged housekeeper. She knew full well what sorrow it had
brought into other houses when she was a young woman ;
and there was enough of mischief in the midnight wintry
blast, without having it increased by the dismal screams of
something w^hich people knew very little about, and which
every body said was far too busy in the churchyard at night-
time. Nay, it was a well-known fact, that if any person were
sick in the neighbourhood, it would be for ever looking in at
the window, and holding a conversation outside with some-
body, they did not know whom. The gamekeeper agreed
with her in every thing she said on this important subject;
and he always stood better in her books when he had

P " And sell bodies torn from their tombs."

1^ Hahits of the Barn Owl,

managed to shoot a bird of this bad and mischievous family.
However, in 1813, on my return from the wilds of Guiana,
having suffered myself, and learned mercy, I broke in pieces
the code of penal laws which the knavery of the gamekeeper
and the lamentable ignorance of the other servants had hither-
to put in force, far too successfully, to thin the numbers of
this poor, harmless, unsuspecting tribe. On the ruin of the
old gateway, against which, tradition says, the waves of the
lake have dashed for the better part of a thousand years, I
made a place with stone and mortar, about 4 ft. square, and
fixed a thick oaken stick firmly into it. Huge masses of ivy
now quite cover it. In about a month or so after it was
finished, a pair of barn owls came and took up their abode in
it. .1 threatened to strangle the keeper if ever, after this, he
molested either the old birds or their young ones; and I
assured the housekeeper that I would take upon myself the
whole responsibility of all the sickness, woe, and sorrow that
the new tenants might bring into the Hall. She made a low
courtesy; as much as to say, " Sir, I fall into your will and
pleasure : " but I saw in her eye that she had made up her
mind to have to do with things of fearful and portentous
shape, and to hear many a midnight wailing in the surround-
ing woods. I do not think that, up to the day of this old
lady's death, which took place in her eighty-fourth year, she
ever looked with pleasure or contentment on the barn owl, as
it flew round the large sycamore trees which grow near the old
ruined gateway.

When I found that this first settlement on the gateway had
succeeded so well, I set about forming other establishments.
This year I have had four broods, and I trust that next sea-
son 1 can calculate on having nine. This will be a pretty
increase, and it will help to supply the place of those which
in this neighbourhood are still unfortunately doomed to
death, by the hand of cruelty or superstition. We can now
always have a peep at the owls, in their habitation on the old
ruined gateway, whenever we choose. Confident of protec-
tion, these pretty birds betray no fear when the stranger
mounts up to their place of abode. I would here venture a
surmise, that the barn owl sleeps standing. Whenever we go
to look at it, we invariably see it upon the perch bolt upright,
and often with its eyes closed, apparently fast asleep. Buffon
and Bewick err (no doubt, unintentionally) when they say
that the barn owl snores during its repose. What they took
for snoring was the cry of the young birds for food. I had
fully satisfied myself on this score some years ago. How-
ever, in December, 1823, I was much astonished to hear this
same snoring kind of noise, which had been so common in the

and its Benefits to Man, Ji3

month of July. On ascending the ruin, I found a brood of
young owls in the apartment.

Upon this ruin is placed a perch, about a foot from the
hole at which the owls enter. Sometimes, at midday, when
the weather is gloomy, you may see an owl upon it, ap-
parently enjoying the refreshing diurnal breeze. This year
(1831) a pair of barn owls hatched their young, on the 7th of
September, in a sycamore tree, near the old ruined gateway.

If this useful bird caught its food by day, instead of hunting
for it by night, mankind would have ocular demonstration
of its utility in thinning the country of mice, and it would be
protected and encouraged every where. It would be with us
what the ibis was with the Egyptians. When it has young,
it will bring a mouse to the nest about every twelve or fifteen
minutes. But, in order to have a proper idea of the enor-
mous quantity of mice which this bird destroys, we must exa-
mine the pellets which it ejects from its stomach in the place
of its retreat. Every pellet contains from four to seven ske-
letons of mice. In sixteen months from the time that the
apartment of the owl on the old gateway was cleaned out,
there has been a deposit of above a bushel of pellets.

The barn owl sometimes carries off rats. One evening I
was sitting under a shed, and killed a very large rat, as it
was coming out of a hole, about ten yards from where I was
watching it I did not go to take it up, hoping to get an-
other shot. As it lay there, a barn owl pounced upon it, and
flew away with it.

This bird has been known to catch fish. Some years ago,
on a fine evening in the month of July, long before it was
dark, as I was standing on the middle of the bridge, and
minuting the owl by my watch, as she brought mice into her
nest, all on a sudden she dropped perpendicularly into the water.
Thinking that she had fallen down in epilepsy, my first
thoughts were to go and fetch the boat ; but before I had
well got to the end of the bridge, I saw the owl rise out of
the water with a fish in her claws, and take it to the nest.
This fact is mentioned by the late much revered and lamented
Mr. Atkinson of Leeds, in his Compendium^ in a note, under
the signature of W., a friend of his, to whom I had commu-
nicated it a few days after I had witnessed it.

I cannot make up my mind to pay any attention to the
description of the amours of the owl by a modern writer ;
at least the barn owl plays off no buffooneries here, such as
those which he describes. An owl is an owl all the world
over, whether under the influence of Momus, Venus, or
Diana.

When farmers complain that the barn owl destroys the

14 Habits of the Barn Owl,

eggs of their pigeon, they lay the saddle on the wrong horse.
They ought to put it on the rat. Formerly I could get very
few young pigeons till the rats were excluded effectually
from the dovecot. Since that took place, it has produced
a great abundance every year, though the barn owls frequent
it, and are encouraged all around it. The barn owl merely
resorts to it for repose and concealment. If it were really an
enemy to the dovecot, we should see the pigeons in com-
motion as soon as it begins its evening flight ; but the pigeons
heed it not : whereas, if the sparrowhawk or windhover should
make their appearance, the whole community would be up at
once, proof sufficient that the barn owl is not looked upon
as a bad, or even a suspicious, character by the inhabitants of
the dovecot.

Till lately, a great and well-known distinction has always
been made betwixt the screeching and the hooting of owls.
The tawny owl is the only owl which hoots ; and when I am
in the woods after poachers, about an hour before daybreak,
I hear with extreme delight its loud, clear, and sonorous
notes, resounding far and near through hill and dale. Very
different from these notes is the screech of the barn owl. But
Sir William Jardine informs us that this owl hoots; and
that he has shot it in the act of hooting. This is stiff autho-
rity ; and I believe it because it comes from the pen of Sir
William Jardine. Still, however, methinks that it ought to
be taken in a somewhat diluted state ; we know full well that
most extraordinary examples of splendid talent do, from time
to time, make their appearance on the world's wide stage.
Thus, Franklin brought down fire from the skies : — " Eripuit
fulmen coelo, sceptrumque tyrannis." * Paganini has led all
London captive, by a single piece of twisted catgut : — " Tu
potes reges comitesque stultos ducere."f Leibnitz tells us
of a dog in Germany that could pronounce distinctly thirty
words. Goldsmith informs us that he once heard a raven
whistle the tune of the " Shamrock," with great distinctness,
truth, and humour. With these splendid examples before
our eyes, may we not be inclined to suppose that the barn
owl which Sir William .shot in the absolute act of hooting
may have been a gifted bird, of superior parts and know-
ledge (una de multis J, as Horace said of Miss Danaus), en-
dowed, perhaps, from its early days with the faculty of hoot-
ing, or else skilled in the art by having been taught it by

* '* He snatched lightning from heaven, and the sceptre from tyrants."
+ '* Thou canst lead kings and their silly nobles."
\ " One out of many."

Fishes new to the British Fauna, 15

its neighbour, the tawny owl ? I beg to remark, that though
I unhesitatingly grant the faculty of hooting to this one par-
ticular individual owl, still I flatly refuse to believe that
hooting is common to barn owls in general. Ovid, in his
sixth book Fastorum, pointedly says that it screeched in his
day: —

" Est illis strigibus nomen ; sed nominis hujus
Causa, quod horrenda stridere nocte solent." *

The barn owl may be heard shrieking here perpetually on
the portico, and in the large sycamore trees near the house.
It shrieks equally when the moon shines and when the night
is rough and cloudy ; and he who takes an interest in it may
here see the barn owl the niffht throucrh when there is a
moon ; and he may hear it shriek when perching on the trees,
or when it is on wing. He may see it and hear it shriek,
within a few yards of him, long before dark ; and again, often
after daybreak, before it takes its final departure to its wonted
resting place. I am amply repaid for the pains I have taken
to protect and encourage the barn owl ; it pays me a hun-
dred-fold by the enormous quantity of mice which it destroys
throughout the year. The servants now no longer wish to
persecute it. Often, on a fine summer's evening, with delight
I see the villagers loitering under the sycamore trees longer
than they would otherwise do, to have a peep at the barn owl,
as it leaves the ivy-mantled tower: fortunate for it, if, in
lieu of exposing itself to danger, by mixing with the world at
large, it only knew the advantage of passing its nights at
home ; for here

" No birds that haunt my valley free
To slaughter I condemn ;
Taught by the Power that pities me,
I learn to pity them.'*

Charles Waterton.
Walton Hall, Novembe?' 26. 1831.

Art. IV. Fishes nexv to the British Fauna, contained in Couch's
*' History of the Fishes of CormvalL'^ By Jonathan Couch,
Esq. F.L.S. &c.

Midge (Cilia^ta glau'ca); Class II. Jugular Fishes.

The Midge {fig. 2.) is about 1 J in. in length ; the body
moderately elongated, the proportions much resembling those

* " They are called owls (striges), because they are accustomed to
screech (stridere) by night."

16 Fishes ?ie'w to the British Fawia,

of the whiting ; head obtuse ; upper jaw longest, having four
barbs, the under jaw one ; teeth in both jaws ; gill membrane
2 with seven rays; eye large and

bright; pectoral and ventral fins
rather large for the size of the
fish ; a ciliated membrane placed
in a chink behind the head ; the dorsal and anal fins reach
almost to the tail, which is large and straight; scales deci-
duous; colour on the back a bluish green, belly and fins
silvery.

Sp. Ch. Back bluish green, all besides silvery, five barbs.

a

It is the mackarel midge of our fishermen, to whom it is
well known, though hitherto unnoticed by naturalists. For
brevity's sake, I have retained only the name Midge, which
is probably descriptive of its minute size ; being the smallest
fish I have any knowledge of.* Compared with the min-
now, it is minute ; and, placed by the side of the mighty
whale, —

" That sea-beast, which God of all his works
Created hugest, that swim the ocean stream ;
Him haply slumbering on the Norway foam,
The pilot of some small night-founder'd skiff

Deeming some island,"

t ■ • -'^ ■

it seems to illustrate the creative energy of that Being in
whom all live and move; for these also " are his offspring.'*

It may, perhaps, be the fish alluded to by Ray {S^/n. Pise,
p. 165.), and seems to be one of the many spoken of by the
older naturalists under the name of A'pua. From their minute
size, and the multitudes in which they sometimes appear,
they judged them produced by spontaneous generation from
the froth of the sea or the putrefaction of marine sub-
stances.

This species is gregarious and migratory, making its first
appearance about the middle of May. Through the summer,
and particularly in fine weather, they are in considerable
numbers, swimming near the surface, when they are followed
by mackarel and pollacks, and other fish, which devour mul-
titudes of them. When winter approaches, they disappear ;
but it can scarcely be supposed that they go to a great
distance.

* The word midgein means a very small quantity, in common lan-
guage, in Cornwall. I find also the word midge used for a gnat in Haw-
kins's edition of Walton's Angler j part ii. p. 104.

contained in Couch's " Fishes of Cornwall" 1 7

Spanish Bream (5'pa^rus L. ^ry'thrinus C); Class III. Thoracic Fishes.

This species {Jig, 3.) bears a great resemblance to the sea
bream, and will best be described in comparison with it. It

3

is the size of a small bream ; the body rather more slender ;
head flatter on the top ; eyes smaller, inclining to oval. Before
the eye the head is more protruded ; the mouth with a wider
gape. Front teeth as in the bream ; grinders more broad
and blunt ; scarcely a depression before the eyes to receive
the nasal orifices, though in the bream they are conspicuous ;
fins as in the bream, even to the numbers of the rays, except
the pectoral, which in the bream reaches opposite to the third
ray of the anal fin ; in this fish, opposite only to the vent.
There is no lateral spot. This description agrees so well
with what Ray delivers of the J^rythrinus {Si/n. Pise, p. 132.),
that I suppose it to be the same fish.

The name given above is that by which it is known to our
fishermen. It is rare, as I have never seen above two or
three specimens. Its habits seem to be like those of the
bream.

CoRKWiNG (Xa^brus L. gi'bbus L.)', Class III. Thoracic Fishes.

This species {fig. 4.) is about three times as long as it is
broad, and much compressed ; jaws equal, mouth narrow,

4

gape small, teeth regular ; first plate of the gill covers ser-
rate, gill membrane with five rays ; large scales on the head
and body ; lateral line nearer the back, bending down sud-
denly opposite the termination of the dorsal fin. Pectoral
Vol. v. — No. 23. c

18 Fishes new to the British Fauna,

fin round, with fourteen rays ; dorsal fin with sixteen firm
and nine soft rays ; ventrals close together, with six rays, the
outermost firm ; anal fin with three firm and nine soft rays,
the last two from one root ; tail slightly rounded, with four-
teen rays. Colour of the head and summit of the back
brownish ; stripes of red and green on the gill covers ; sides
a faint green with numerous lightish red stripes. The fins
are similarly variegated, but all the colours, though subject
to variety as in others of this genus, are fainter than in most
others. Near the tail, close to the termination of the lateral
line, is a conspicuous black mark, which is sometimes want-
ing ; and then it seems to me to constitute the gibbous wrass
of British naturalists, which is therefore only a variety of the
above. The iris of the eye is marked with yellow, green,
and crimson, in concentric circles. It rarely exceeds 4 in. in
length.

The cork wing is common among rocks in shallow water,
where it seeks shelter among the sea-weeds ; it is often found
among them in pools left by the tide. It feeds on crustaceous
animals, and takes a bait.

Wrass (Xa^brus Lin. lu'squs, Lin. ?).

This specimen (Jig, 5.) was 22 in. long, the greatest depth,
exclusive of the fins, 2\ in., the body plump and rounded.

Head elongated, lips membranous, teeth numerous, in several
rows, those in front larger and more prominent, rather in-
curved. Eye moderately large. Anterior gill plate serrate,
six gill rays. Body and gill covers with large scales. Lateral
line nearer the back, descending with a sweep opposite the
termination of the dorsal fin, thence backward straight. Dor-
sal fin, twenty-one firm, eight soft rays, the fin connected with
the latter expanded, reaching to the base of the tail ; pectorals
round, fourteen rays ; ventrals six rays, the outermost simple,
stout, firm, tipped ; between these fins a large scale. Anal
fin, six firm, eight soft rays, the latter a soft portion expanded.
Tail round, fifteen rays. Between each ray of the dorsal,

contained in Couches ^^ Fishes of ConmalV^ 19

anal, and caudal fins is a process formed of firm elongated
imbricated scales. Colour a uniform light brown, lighter on
the belly ; upper eyelid black ; at the edge of the base of the
caudal fin a dark-brown spot. Pectorals yellow, all the other
fins bordered with yellow.

I have never seen more than one specimen of this species;
which was taken with a line, in February, 1830, at the con-
clusion of a very cold season. It differs from the common
wrass and corkwing in its more elongated form and rounder
make ; from the former also in its serrated gill cover. From
the rock-cook and goldsinny it may be distinguished, be-
sides in its larger size, by its longer form, larger mouth,
rounder tail, and by the spot at the root of the tail being far-
ther behind. The eye is larger than in the cook, and nearer
the angle of the mouth ; it may also be distinguished by the
serrated gill cover, form of the lateral line, by more numerous
tipped dorsal and anal spines, less rounded tail ; as well as
by the colours, which are sober, whereas those of the cook
are always splendid, and are little subject to variety, except
of distribution. From all the species with which I am ac-
quainted, it may be readily known by the singular imbricated
process of scales between the rays of the fins. I find some
difficulty in referring it to any described species ; but it seems
to me to approach most closely to the Z/abrus luscus of Lin-
naeus.

Hog Wrass (La^brus sui'llus L.).

Dorsal fin filamentous, above the tail a black spot ; dorsal
spines nine. Osbeck is my only authority for introducing
this species among Cornish fishes. When on his voyage from
the East, the people of the Scilly Islands brought it, among
other fishes, on board of his ship for sale. {Osbeck^ s Voyage^
vol. ii. p. ]22.) The English name I have assigned it is
merely a translation of the Linnaean term.

Smooth Perch (Pp^ecaZ/. Cha'nnus C.)j Class III. Thoracic Fishes.

I had long unavailingly sought for a satisfactory account
of this species in the books on natural history to which
I was able to procure access, when I had unexpectedly the
good fortune to discover it in Gesner {Nomenclator Aquat.
Anim,, p. 27.), under the name of Ch^nnus, or Channa ; his
figure and account being strikingly applicable to this fish in a
peculiarity I had remarked before I was attracted by the note
in this ancient author, from which, indeed, the name is derived.
" Channa piscis moriens perpetuo hiat, ac rictum edit." * As

* " The Channa, whilst dying, perpetually gasps and eructs."
c 2

20 Fishes new to the British Fauna,

the Channus, or Channa, of Gesner is unquestionably the
Channa of Ray {Si/n, Pise, p. 140.), it is the iabrus Channus
of Turton, though it possesses none of the characters of a
wrass. It must, therefore, be denominated Perca Channus.

This fish {Jig, 6.) is about 10 in. long. Under jaw longest ;
teeth in both and in the palate, numerous, irregular, sharp,
incurved ; tongue small, loose. Eyes large, near the top of
the head. First plate of the gill covers serrate, the second
with two (in the female, one) obscure spines, scarcely to be
distinguished, except in form, from the scales with which the
gill covers and body are thickly and firmly covered, and which
are also ciliated. Seven rays in the gill membrane, curved,
the superior broad. Body compressed, deep ; the dorsal fin
commences opposite the ventral, ten sharp and fourteen soft
rays ; pectoral fin ending in a point, fifteen rays ; ventrals with
six rays ; anal with two pointed and seven soft rays ; caudal
fin slightly curved, seventeen rays. Lateral line nearer the
back. Colour of the back brown, in some specimens having
distinct bars running round to the belly ; sides yellow, red-
dish or saffron-coloured, more faint below; two irregular
parallel whitish lines pass along the side from head to tail ; a
third, more imperfect, on the belly. On the gill plates are
several faintish blue stripes, running obliquely downward.
The fins are striped longitudinally with red and yellow, pec-
torals wholly yellow.

I have suspected this to be the P. diagramma Lin., com-
paring his specific character with the description of that
species given by Gronovius ; but I feel some doubt, since the
latter is spot en of as inhabiting Indian rivers. Until this ob-
scurity was removed by discovering its name in Gesner's
Nomenclator Aquat. Anim., p. 2?., as noticed above, I had ven-
tured to name it P. inermis. It is the comber of our fishermen ;
but this name having been irrecoverably assigned to a species
of wrass, I am compelled to affix a name of my own invention,
viz. smooth perch. It is a common fish, and keeps in the
neighbourhood of rocks, not far from land. It is singular
that the spasm which seizes this fish, when taken, never passes

contained in Couch's " Fishes of Cornisoall." 21

oiF; hence it is found long after death in a state of rigidity
and contortion, with the fins preternaturally erect.

Dusky Perch (Pe'rca L. robu'sta C).

The fish [Jig, 7.) from which my description was taken weighed
sixteen pounds, and measured 3 ft. in length, and 7 in. in

depth, exclusive of the fins, the body thick and solid. Under
jaw longest, both, as well as the palate, having numerous
slender incurved teeth ; in front of the under jaw was a bed
of them. Lips like those of the codfish, two large open nasal
orifices, and a large hole under the projection of the nasal
bone. First plate of the gill covers serrate, the second with
a broad flat spine projecting through the skin, and pointing
backward ; the fleshy covering of the gill covers elongated
posteriorly ; seven rays in the gill membrane. Body and head
covered with large scales, lateral line gently curved. Dorsal
fin single, long, expanding towards its termination, with eleven
spinous rays, the first short, and seventeen soft rays, the two
last from one origin. Pectoral fin round, nineteen rays ; ven-
trals fastened down by a membrane through part of their course,
six rays. Vent an inch and a half from the origin of the anal
fin, which fin has two spinous and nine soft rays, the last two
from one origin. Tail roundish, sixteen rays. Colour of the
back reddish brown, lighter on the belly; two slightly marked
lines on the gill covers running obliquely downward, one on
each plate. The gill covers are not ridged. In its aspect
this fish has some resemblance to the jLabri, yet it has none
of the generic characters by which these fishes are distin-
guished. That it should be placed among the perches I
make no question ; but my most industrious search has not
been able to find that it has been either figured or described :
until, therefore, some other naturalist shall be more fortunate,
I venture to denominate it P, robusta, from its great size and
strength. I have never seen more than one specimen, which
was taken with a line.

c 3

22 Fishes new to the British Fauna^

BuRACO DE Velha, Gen. ?

This fish is 12 or 14 in. long, and 4 in. wide ; from the head
the back is elevated and arched; the head itself sharp, in
each jaw a row of very small teeth. The lower part of the
mouth and tongue a bright red, iris of the eye gold and dusky.
A single dorsal fin, the first rays firm, the posterior flexile ;
tail forked; scales moderate, silvery, bluish from the head
along the back; lateral line white. [Ray, Syn. Pise, p. 134.)

I am uncertain whether this fish is rightly arranged among
the Percae ; and unfortunately I was prevented from examining
a species that was taken at Looe a few years since, of which I
received an account from that place. This is probably the
only instance of its having ever visited the British seas.

Spanish Mackarel (aSco'mber L. macula^tus C.) ;
Class in. Thoracic Fishes.

This fish (Jig. 8.) attains the weight of four or five pounds ;
but the specimen described measured no more than 14^ in. in

length, the figure round and plump, 6 J in. in compass near the
pectoral fins, the thickness of its figure being carried far to-
wards the tail. Mouth large, jaws of equal length, teeth small,
tongue movable and pointed. Head large and long; eye
large, l^in. from the snout, and itself | in. wide; from the
snout to the pectoral fin SJ in. Rays of the gill membrane
six, concealed. Lateral line at first slightly descending, then
straight. Scales on the superior plate of the gill covers, as
well as on the body. First dorsal fin in a chink, seven rays,
the first shorter, second and third of equal lengths ; spurious
fins six above and below, the anterior not high ; tail divided,
and at its origin doubly carinated. Vent prominent. Colour
dark blue on the back, striped like the mackarel, but more
obscurely and with fewer stripes ; a row of large dark spots
from the pectoral fin to the tail, sides and belly thickly
covered with smaller dusky spots. The tail, gill covers and
sides, and behind the eye, bright yellow. From the mackarel,
which it resembles, this fish differs in the markings of the
head, longer snout, larger e}e and gape, longer head, and in

contained in Cotich^s " Fishes of Corn^mallJ*

23

having scales on the anterior gill covers. The body is not
nearly so much attenuated posteriorly ; the ventral fins are
sharp and slender, those of the mackarel wider and more
blunt : in the former, the pectorals lie close to the body ; in
the latter, they stand off; in the latter, also, is a large angular
plate, the point directed backward, close above the pectoral
fins, which does not exist in the Spanish mackarel iS, macu-
latus C).

It seems to be the Colias RondeleteV of Ray. {Syn. Pisc.^
p. 59.) I have given it the name by which it is known to our
fishermen. ;

This fish is scarce, but some are taken every year. It does
not often take a bait, although the fishermen inform me that
this sometimes happens ; and that its infrequency is owing to
the difference of feeding rather than to want of rapacity. It
is more frequently taken in drift nets ; but even then it is only
one at a time, and at considerable intervals. It is in no esti-
mation as food.

Mud Lamprey (Petromy"^zon L. c^^cus Ray); Class VI. Chou'
dropterygous Fishes.

This species {Jigs, 9, 10.) grows to the length of 6 in., and
is about the size of a goose-quill. The mouth, when open, is

irregularly oval, throat capacious, teeth large and blunt,
placed circularly from the roof of the mouth to the under
jaw ; upper lip prominent, fleshy, movable at the sides.
Orifice on the head ; apertures for breathing along the sides,
seven in number. The body dilated at this part. No eye
discoverable. Body cylindrical to the vent, which is far
back, thence compressed, tapering. First dorsal fin on the
hind part of the back, small and narrow ; the second close to
it, elevated, and then narrow, passing round the extremity of
the body, and below reaching half-way from the tail to the
vent. Colour a dusky yellow, dark on the back, light below ;
fins light.

c 4

24- Analogy between Vegetables and Animals

This species, from the absence of eyes, is sufficiently dis-
tinguished from others of its genus. It is mentioned by Ray
{Syn, Pise, p. 35.), but omitted in later systems of natural
history.

If in its habits the silver lamprey (P. fluviatilis L,) bears
a resemblance to the glutton (t/'rsus gulo L.\ this makes
as near an approach to the mole ( Talpa europae'a L.), It
frequents our smaller streams, living in the muddy bottom,
from which it rarely, if ever, w^ilHngly emerges. I have
kept it for months in stagnant water, with mud at the bot-
tom, without injury to its health or activity. The only
apparent use of its fins is to enable it to regain its station,
when forced from it by violent torrents. When kept in clear
water it seems to sleep much. I have never found this species
to attach itself to any object by the mouth ; but the lips are
capable of extensive and complicated motions. It spawns
at the end of April and the beginning of May. Fishermen
collect them to use as bait when whiffing for pollacks.

Art. V. An Essay on the Analogy between the Structure and
Functions of Vegetables and Animals. By William Gordon-,
Esq. Surgeon, Welton, near Hull. Read before the Hull Lite-
rary and Philosophical Society, Nov. 19. 1830. Communicated
by Mr. Gordon.

{Continued from Vol. IV. p. 393.)

I HAVE now pointed out the close analogy that exists be-
tween vegetables and animals, in so far as it regards the form
of their ultimate corpuscles, the composition, and extensive
diffiision of their membranous matter, the structure of their
cellular tissue, and the organisation and functions of their
cutaneous system. I shall next endeavour to show that
plants, as well as animal beings, possess a muscular tissue.
In order to do this, I must first take a review of the proper-
ties of muscular fibre, as they are exhibited in the animal
body.

The properties of muscle may be divided into physical and
vital. The former are, cohesion, flexibility, extensibility, and
elasticity. On these it is not necessary for me to make any
observations. The vital property of muscle is what more
immediately concerns our subject, and is termed contractility :
it is that specific faculty which muscular fibre possesses of
contracting or shortening itself. When a stimulant is applied
to a muscle, its fibres are thrown into what is called a state of
contraction : its belly swells out, and grows hard to the touch ;
its surface, which in its natural condition was smooth, becomes

in their Structure and Functions, 25

wrinkled, and its two extremities approximate, so that the
parts to which they are attached are drawn nearer together :
thus, when the biceps flexor muscle is made to contract, the
forearm and hand are raised towards the shoulder. Con-
tractility, or, as it is called by some, irritability, is peculiar to
muscular fibre, and does not belong to any other animal solid
whatever. Blumenbach has, indeed, ascribed to membrane a
kind of contractile power ; but the example of it which he
adduces can, with more propriety, be referred to elasticity.
Muscular contraction never takes place, except on the applica-
tion to the muscular fibre of some irritating agent, which is
called a stimulus. These agents or stimuli are exceedingly
numerous, and consist of mechanical impulses of every degree,
of a variety of chemical substances, of electricity, and of
volition. The older physiologists endeavoured to account for
contractility on mechanical principles, and to refer it to the
operation of elasticity ; but, if we carefully note the phenomena
that attend it, we shall perceive that it bears no analogy what-
ever to this or any other species of mechanical force.

In the first place, the contraction of a muscle is always
greater than the cause by which it is produced : so that it
appears that in contractility there is an actual generation of
power ; whereas, in the reaction of elastic bodies, the effect
produced can never exceed the amount of the cause producing
it. In the second place, in contractility, the reaction com-
mences during the application of the mechanical agent ; but in
elasticity, the reaction cannot take place until the force that
had been impressed is removed. For example, if a straight
piece of whalebone be bent into a curve, it cannot regain its
original form until one of its extremities be liberated ; but, if
the surface of a muscle be scratched with a sharp-pointed
instrument, its fibres begin to contract the very moment the
operation is commenced. In the third place, the contraction
of muscular fibres, after continuing some time, is succeeded
by a state of relaxation or exhaustion, even although the
stimulus continues to be applied to them ; and muscles which
have become exhausted or relaxed, after having been in a state
of contractility, cannot be again excited to act until a certain
period has elapsed. In mechanics, there is nothing which bears
the slightest resemblance to this ; for in every description of
machinery a certain effect will always be produced so long as
the application of an efficient cause is continued. Such are
the properties of muscular fibre, and such are the phenomena
attendant upon and peculiar to contractility.

We shall now proceed to examine some of the actions of
vegetable organs. If we can discover that these actions are
accompanied with phenomena such as we know can only be

26 Analogy between Vegetables and Animals

i-eferred to muscular contraction, shall we not be justified in
concluding that vegetables, as well as animals, are furnished
with muscular organs. Most persons are aware that when
the lower part of the stamens of the flower of the berberry
{Berberis vulgaris) are touched, however slightly, they in-
stantly bend themselves towards the pistil ; in a short time
they become relaxed, and resume their natural position. The
contractile effect in this case, as far as I have observed, is
always much greater than the amount of the cause by which
it is produced; and, in experiments, I have witnessed that
relaxation will take place at the same time that the mechanical
cause which excited the contraction continues to be impressed.
Moreover, the stamen of the berberry can be made to contract,
even after it is cut from the flower, precisely in the same
manner as the heart can be excited to action after it has been
removed from the body. In the sensitive plant [or rather,
humble plant, Mimosa pudica] we perceive very strong indi-
cations of contractility. It is well known that its leaves will
collapse on the slightest touch, and fold themselves up. The
Dionae^a Muscipula is another striking example of the existence
of muscular contractility in plants. The leaves are each ter-
minated by two lobes, which are furnished with long spines,
and besmeared by a fluid substance which they secrete. As
soon as a fly alights upon the lobes they immediately close,
and, by squeezing the insect forcibly upon their points, they
kill it almost instantaneously. The upper surface of the leaves
of the Drosera rotundifolia (common or round-leaved sundew)
is covered with a number of small red hairs, on the extremity
of each of which is placed a globule of viscid fluid. When
an insect comes upon the leaf, the hairs, which are very con-
tractile, bend round it on every side, and keep it fast. The
viscid globules also serve to detain it; but their chief use seems
to be to destroy its life, which, by their excessive acrimony,
they speedily accomplish. The two lips of the stigma of the
Gloxinm*, before fructification, are seen to open; but, as soon
as a particle of pollen falls upon their inner surface, they
instantly close. From these examples, and I could adduce
many more, it will be perceived that several of the actions of
plants are attended with phenomena which can be attributed

* In which, or in every, species of Gloxink ? The stigma in the genus
ikfimulus is also formed of two broad lips, which in warm weather are dis-
tended, but promptly collapse on being touched; M. luteus evinces this
irritability very conspicuously, in which species it was discovered, and first
pointed out to me, by a botanical assistant, Mr. George Woolsey. I have
subsequently examined M. moschatus, and other species of this genus
which exhibit the same phenomenon, although in a lower degree than
M. luteus does. Mi*. David Don informs me that the lips of the stigma
in M. glutinosus are eminently sensitive. — .7. D,

in their Structure and Functions. 27

only to contractility. They cannot be the result of elasticity,
or of any mechanical arrangement, for they entirely resemble
the phenomena which accompany muscular contraction, as
it is exhibited in the animal body. In conclusion, I may
remark, that the strongest indications of contractility are,
perhaps, perceived in the petals, stamens, and other organs
of the flower. Accordingly, we find that these are the most
animalised parts of plants ; for their chemical composition
agrees with that of muscular fibre, the ultimate elements of
which consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, with a large pro-
portion of azote.

That many of the movements of plants are purely mechani-
cal there can be little doubt; we may take, for example, the
movements of the Celosia, and those of the Parietaria, and
of many others : but that those I have enumerated are the
result of contractility, and of contractility alone, cannot, I
think, for a moment be questioned. But perhaps it will be
argued, that, if we assign to plants the property of contractility,
we must likewise endue thern with a nervous system ; because,
according to some physiologists, muscular contraction cannot
take place without the intervention of nerves. They affirm,
that, when a muscle is operated upon by a stimulant so as
to be excited to contract, the impression is not, in the first
instance, made upon the muscular fibre itself, but that it is
first received by the nerves connected with the muscle, and
then transmitted by them to the muscular fibre. It will be
seen, however, from various facts which I shall state, that this
opinion is not correct, and that the property of contractility is
totally independent of the agency of the nerves. In the first
place, it is well known that the heart is formed a considerable
time before the brain ; for, if the chick in an egg be attentively
examined during the earliest periods of existence, the only
mark of life that can be perceived is a small beating point, called
the punctum saliens. This point gradually expands, and is
converted into the muscular substance of the heart. It is not,
however, until some time after the heart has been seen to
pulsate that the brain and nervous system become visible : so
that it is evident that the action of the heart is independent
of the influence of the nerves. In the second place, we know
that the quantity of nerves with which the heart is supplied
bears no proportion to its degree of contractility. Thirdly,
the heart, and many other muscular parts, long after they are
removed from the body, will contract very forcibly on the
application of a stimulant. Fourthly, mature foetuses have been
born, in whom there was no vestige either of a brain or a
spinal cord ; and it has been shown by experiment that the
heart will continue its contractions, as usual, for some time

28 Analogy betweeri Vegetables and Animals

after both the brain and spinal marrow have been totally
destroyed. In the fifth and last place, if the nerves belonging
to the right extremity of an animal be divided, as was done
in the experiment of Dr. PhiUp, related in his Experimental
Inquiry^ while those of the left extremity are allowed to remain
entire, and if the corresponding muscles of each extremity be
made to contract by the direct application of a stimulant, it
will be found that those belonging to the extremity in which
the nerves are divided do not lose their contractility sooner
than those attached to the extremity in which the nerves are
left untouched, and scarcely so soon. Besides, it seems very
clear that the involuntary muscles, as in the heart, &c., which
are continually moving, have no nerves of motion whatever.
They have only nerves of simple sensation ; for these muscles
are not stimulated to contract when electricity is applied to
the nerves which are distributed to them ; and we know that
electric fluid is incapable of acting upon the simply sensitive
nerves, while it operates powerfully on the nerves of motion.
Such are the proofs that contractility is an inherent power
of the muscles, and is independent of the nervous system.

This being the case, then, it is clear that, although plants
may possess a muscular or contractile, they may, nevertheless,
be entirely destitute of a nervous, structure; for it is very
evident that the existence of the latter is not necessary to that
of the former. Since, then, contractility can exist independent
of the agency of the nerves, it follows that it may be exercised
without consciousness ; for there can be no consciousness
apart from a nervous system. Plants, therefore, notwith-
standing they are possessed of strong contractile power, may
be, nevertheless, perfectly unconscious beings. To prove,
indeed, that contractility may be performed without conscious-
ness, we have only to take note of what is going on within
own persons. The heart and blood-vessels are constantly cir-
culating the blood, the bowels are propelling forward the
chyle and faeces, and the diaphragm is every moment con-
tracting and relaxing. All these functions depend upon con-
tractility, and yet they are perfectly imperceptible to the mind.
The instinct of plants (for plants possess instinct as well as
animals) results from their contractile power. Plants will
seek and turn towards the light ; the roots of plants will go
in search of proper nourishment, and, if they approach a
situation which would be injurious to them, they instantly
turn away from it. If a plant be laid on a table, near a
sponge filled with water, it will direct its roots towards the
sponge. If the sponge be removed to another place, the
roots will likewise change their direction in pursuit of it. The

in their Structure and Functions, 29

hop plant, turning round a pole, follows the course of the sun
from east to west : these are all examples of instinct.

I have now endeavoured to prove that a muscular tissue
exists in vegetables as well as animals. My next object will
be to show that plants likewise possess a nervous tissue. In
doing this, I am not unconscious upon what very debatable
ground I am entering. At the same time, I must confess
that the facts which the researches of physiologists have dis-
covered render it more than probable that plants are endued
with nerves. The nervous system, as it is found in man and
the higher classes of animals, consists of the brain, the spinal
cord, the ganglia, and the nerves. The brain is enveloped
in three distinct membranes, and is encased in the bones of
the cranium. The spinal cord, which is merely a prolonga-
tion of the brain, is also enclosed in a strong membranous
covering, and is lodged within the cavity of the backbone.
The nerves are small white medullary cords, which take their
origin from the lower surface of the brain and from the lateral
parts of the spinal cord. They pass out through apertures
at the bottom of the skull and sides of the vertebrae, and are
ramified over every part of the body. The ganglia are found
in various parts of the nervous system. They resemble little
brains, and are supposed to be sources of nervous energy.
In many of the lower animals, as worms and insects, no brain
is to be found, but only one or two longitudinal nerves placed
in the centre of their bodies, having attached to them, at
various distances, minute ganglia from which fresh ramifica-
tions of nerves proceed. The faculty which the nervous
system exercises, is to receive and transmit the impressions of
external objects to the brain; where they may be rendered
sensible to the mind, giving rise to what are denominated
perceptions. This faculty is called sensibility, and it possesses
two distinct modes of operation. The one is produced by
external impressions, which are conveyed by the media
[means] of the nerves to the brain ; the other is derived from
some change being generated in the brain itself, which is
transmitted along the nerves to some of the corporeal organs.
This latter constitutes volition. Notwithstanding, however, that
nervous action is often succeeded by perception, yet there are
many cases in which impressions never become perceptible
to the mind : in other words, sensation is generally attended
with consciousness ; but it may exist without it. For example,
whenever the nerves of any of the external senses are acted
upon by their appropriate stimuli, as, for instance, when light
is applied to the eye, we are conscious of the impression ; but
when food is taken into the stomach, we feel no impression
or sensation at all ; and yet we know that the stomach is as

^0 Analogy bet'wee7i Vegetables and Animals.

sensible to the stimulus of food, as the eye is to that of light.
Are we, then, from these circumstances, to conclude that there
are two different classes of nerves, one of which exercises the
functions of perception and volition, while the other possesses
only the power of transmitting nervous influence, and is in-
capable of exciting perception. Mr. C. Bell, Majendie, and
other physiologists have proved by innumerable facts and
direct experiments, that there are two classes of nerves, per-
fectly distinct from each other. The first class is called the
symmetrical, and consists of the fifth cerebral, and all the
spinal nerves: they arise by double roots, and are ramified
upon the voluntary muscles : they constitute the organs of
perception and volition, and form the means whereby the
animal body is connected with the external world. The se-
cond class of nerves is termed the irregular, and it includes
what are called the respiratory and the ganglionic nerves^
They arise, by single roots, from the base of the medulla
oblongata [the medullary substance lying within the cranium
or skull, which is the beginning of the spinal marrow], and
are distributed to the conservative organs of the body, such as
the stomach, the lungs, the heart, &c., which they connect in-
timately together. They unite with the symmetrical nerves,
and form the bond of union between the two halves of the
body. Their property is to transmit the nervous influence
from one part to another ; but they do not possess the faculty
of communicating either perception or volition. From this
account it appears that there are no less than five distinct
sets of nerves. For instance, the symmetrical or regular
class consists of nerves of sensation and of nerves of motion.
If a nerve of sensation be pricked or irritated, great pain is
produced ; and, if the same nerve be divided, all sensation is
destroyed, but the function of motion is not in the least
impaired or affected : on the contrary, if a nerve of motion
be lacerated or injured, the muscles upon which its fila-
ments are ramified become convulsed ; but, if a motific [mo-
tion-causing] nerve be fairly cut in two, the motion of the
parts to which it is distributed is entirely lost, but their sens-
ation, or power of feeling, remains perfect and natural. The
irregular class consists of the nerves distributed to the muscles
concerned in the function of respiration ; and of the gan-
glionic nerves, which, as I have observed above, are con-
ducive to growth and nutrition. Besides these four sets, there
are the nerves of the external senses, such as the nerves of
touch, the olfactory, the optic, the auditory, and the gustatory
nerves.

{To be continued.')

Natural History of Molluscous Animals.

91

Art. VI. An Introduction to the Natural History of Molluscous
Animals. In a Series of Letters. By G. J.

Letter 9. On their Circulating System,

Sir,

Aristotle divides animals into those which have blood,
and those which have none ; and these primary classes were
appropriately named the sanguineous and exsanguineous.
Among the latter he places the Mollusca, as all naturalists
did for a long time afterwards, and as all, except naturalists,
continue to do. Blood is scarcely known to the vulgar unless
by its red colour ; and so essential is this character deemed,
that it appears to them little less than an abuse of language
to apply the term to any white or colourless fluid. Even
Linnaeus seems to have participated of this prejudice, and to
have yielded to its influence, when he called the circulating
fluid of the Mollusca a safiies : but to call it any thing else
than blood is apt to lead into error ; for it possesses all the
essential properties of blood, flows in an analogous circle of
vessels, and answers the same purposes in the system.

The circulating system of the Mollusca consists of a heart,
either single, or with its parts disjoined ; and of two kinds of
vessels, viz. arteries and veins : and the latter are supposed to
perform the additional function of absorbents ; for nothing

analogous to these has been
yet detected. The heart is
very various in point of
figure, but is always evi-
dently muscular, and has its
interior strengthened with
fleshy cords (columnae car-
nese), interlaced in every
direction, (^g, 24. *) It is
placed in general in the
back, above the alimentary
canal, near to or between
the branchiae, and in a cavity
usually called the pericardi-
um, and considered, accord-
ing to Blainville errone-
ously (Manuel de Malaco-
logie. Sec, p. 13L), as the
representative of the same sac in the vertebrate animals. The

* Interior view of the heart of Octopus vulgaris, from Cuvier. a, The
aorta j b, branchial veins ; c, the valves ; d, columnae carneas.

32 Natural History of Molluscous Animals : —

arteries are very elastic, and probably muscular, although no
fibres can be detected in their gelatinous structure ; their
coats are thicker and stronger than those of the veins, which,
indeed, are so extremely thin as frequently scarce to be distin-
guished from the tissues in which they run. The veins do not
appear to be provided with valves, as you know the veins of
other animals are; but valves are placed at the orifices be-
tween the cavities of the heart, and very often at the entrances
into the primary arterial and venous trunks.

With regard to the distribution of the sanguiferous vessels,
it will be necessary to give a sketch of it in the principal
orders separately; for it is subject to such important and
considerable modifications, that there would be great difficulty
in giving an intelligible view which would be applicable to
molluscous animals as a whole. We may, however, observe,
that, in all, the blood issuing from the heait is distributed
through the body by the medium of the arteries, and returned
towards the centre by the veins, which have united there into
one or a few trunks ; whence, again, they diverge into nume-
rous ramifications, to conduct the blood through the branchiae
or gills, to be brought back by a corresponding set of vessels
to its point of departure. The circulation, therefore, is essen-
tially the same as in the vertebrate animals; but there exists
in the latter an arrangement of vessels of a very peculiar
kind, for a circulation through the liver — the system, as it has
been called, of the vetia porta, — to which there is nothing
comparable in the MoUusca.

In the Cephalopoda there are three hearts. The true
systematic heart, marked a in the diagram annexed {Jig. 25.),
consists of a single cavity, and is situated towards the centre
of the bod}-^, between the gills. By its action the blood is
propelled directly into a large artery or aorta (&), and into
two smaller vessels, to be distributed, by their joint ramifi-
cations, to every organ and point of the body. One of
the small arteries comes off from the inferior surface, and
is destined to supply the testicle or ovary; the other rises from
the anterior surface, and supplies in part the gills, the sac,
and more especially the intestines and chylopoietic viscera;
but it is the aorta, issuing from the heart on the posterior
side, which carries the great mass of blood through the system,
to furnish new materials for its growth and secretions. From
the extreme branchlets of the arteries the blood flows on into
the capillary extremities of the veins, and commences its
return to the centre ; for the small branches of the latter ves-
sels converge and unite, by frequent anastomoses (inoscu-
lations), into larger ones, until they are collected into a few

Circulatmg System,

33

trunks. The veins of the feet and superior parts form ulti-
mately two of these (c), which almost immediately coalesce

into one greater (d) ; and this vessel, after descending through
part of the viscera into the abdomen, and receiving blood
from various little tributaries, again divides into two branches
(e e). Each branch is here joined by a vein (o) of a size equal
to itself, and which has brought the blood from the abdominal
viscera; and a little afterwards by another, from the cloak
and the supports of the gills. When thus augmented, they
proceed to their termination in the lateral hearts, placed, one
on each side, at the root of the branchiae. These hearts {/)
are called pulmonic; they are rather cellular than fleshy in
texture, moderately thick, of a blackish grey colour in some
genera, pale red in others, and pitted internally with many
little cavities communicating together. Two large valves
are placed at the venous orifice, to prevent regurgitation ; but
there is none at the orifice by which the blood enters the
Vol. V. -- No. 23. d *

S4 Natural History of Molluscous Animals: —

artery [g), whose function is to carry it forwards to the gills
or branchiae (/?), where, circulating through the windings of
their beautiful leaflets, it is purified, and thence returned by
veins running in the reverse direction, and which open at last
by a single trunk (z) into the systemic heart, again to run the
same endless circuit,

I have omitted in this description a very remarkable pecu-
liarity connected with the venous system, and which merits
our particular notice. Previously to their junction with the
pulmonic hearts, the two branches into which the great dorsal
vein bifurcates, and their accessory veins, pass across two
large cavities, called 'venous by Cuvier, which communicate
externally by an aperture on each side near the gills. In this
part of their course the veins are garnished with some very
singular glandular bodies (oc x, Jigs, 25. and 26.), of a spongy
cellular structure and yellow colour, from which an opaque
yellowish mucous secretion can be easily pressed in consider-
able quantity. The cells of these bodies open freely into one
another, and they have likewise a very free and direct com-
munication with the interior of the veins to which they are
appended ( fig. 26.); but of their use it is difficult to form an

^ opinion. Cuvier

l ^^K yW^^^^-- :p vVf ^# which the venous

^^^^^:w!(^® ^^m. ^UJ t)lood is more fully

^M^IStefiil'%m,. ^^^^^f ^'"^ influence of
^^^^^HSI%''*'^tft • ^ %^ i the circumfluent wa-

<f ^^x^^^^^^^^^ excretory canals, by

^^^ glands pour into the

vein some substance which it could not of itself extract from
that fluid ; or, on the contrary, they may be emunctories, by
means of which the blood is purged of some noxious principle.
This last conjecture, he thinks, is rendered more probable by
the abundance of the yellowish mucus poured out; and it
is certain that the communication between the interior of.
these bodies and the medium in which the animals live is very
open ; for when air or an injection is thrown into the vein, the
air or the injection passes very readily through the glands
into the venous cavity, and thence outwards; or, on the con-
trary, if air is blown by its external orifice into this cavity, it

Circulating Si/stem. " ^5.

passes thence very often into the veins. " Were it practic-
able," says Dr. Fleming, " to analyse the yellow mucusi
which these glands contain, some light might be thrown on
the subject: indeed, it appears not improbable that this
arrangement is analogous in its functions to the urinary
system in the most perfect classes." {Philosophy of Zoology^
vol. ii. p. 4-26.)

The circulatory apparatus of the Gasteropoda is less com-
plex than that of the preceding order. They have a single
heart, the position of which in the body is regulated by the
position and symmetry of the branchiae; for, in molluscous as
in vertebrate animals, the heart is never far distant from the
aerating organs. In the greater number of the Gasteropoda
it is situated in the back, above the intestinal canal, at an
equal distance from each gill when this is paired, or obliquely
to tlie left, and rarely to the right, when it is single. It is
composed of an auricle and a ventricle: the former cavity is
very variable in shape, and has very thin but muscular walls ;
the latter is equally variable, but, in general, of greater
capacity, and more decidedly muscular. It is from one of
the extremities of its great diameter that the arterial or cen-
trifugal system proceeds ; sometimes by a single trunk, or
more commonly by two vessels. Of these, one is anterior,
and the other posterior : the first furnishes branches to the
head, to the gullet and adjacent organs ; while the second
sends its ramifications to the stomach, intestines, the liver,
and the secretory organs of generation. The blood is brought
back from these distant parts, as in other animals, by the
venous, or, as it has been happily designated, tlie centripetal
system ; the numerous branchlets of which, after repeated
inosculations, are at length united into one large trunk, which,
generally without the intervention of any dilatation or auricle,
assumes the character and office of a pulmonary artery, that
again divides and subdivides itself, to conduct the circulating
flood through all the sinuosities of the gills.

The description just given is liable to many exceptions^,
were we to descend to particular families and genera; and,
although in a sketch of the kind I attempt to give you, it is
impossible to notice all their peculiarities, yet it may be useful,
and not void of interest, to select a few examples illustrative
of the most remarkable anomalies in the arrangement of their
circulating system. The Tethys ^eporina {^fig. 27-*), a native
of the shores of the Balearic Isles, will afford our first instance.

* From Cuvier's Memoires pour servir a VHistoire et a VAnatomie des
Mollusques ; the most valuable work by far in this department of natural
history.

D 2

36

Natural History of Molluscous Animals : —

In this singular and beautiful creature, the heart is situated in
the middle of the back, immediately under the skin. Its

a. Veil; b, tentacula ; c, neck ; rf, organs of generation ; e, anus and another excretory
orifice j /, greater branchiae; g, lesser branchiae; h, margins of foot.

oval and very thin auricle receives the branchial veins, which
trend towards it like the spokes of a wheel towards the nave,
and pour into it the purified blood, not by one or two, but
by numerous orifices. The opening from the auricle to the
ventricle is furnished with two very distinct valves ; and, as
usual, the latter cavity is more fleshy and opaque than the
auricle, of an oval form, and strengthened with small muscular
cords. Two principal arteries take their departure from it ;
one of which, proceeding forwards, gives branches to the sto-
mach, oesophagus, to the organs of generation, to both sides
of the back and foot, and lastly loses itself in the veil ; while
the other artery, directing its course backwards, is principally
distributed on the rectum and liver. The veins issuing from
this organ, and from the intestines, run in the sides of the
body, where, in conjunction with the veins returning from the

Circulating System. 37

foot, the back, and the veil, they form ultimately two main
vessels to carry the blood to the branchiae ; which are external,
and arranged like crests, in two rows along the back, the
principal ornaments of the animal.

We may take our next example from among the terrestrial
Mollusca. The heart of the slug (Z/imax ater) is placed
almost on the middle of the pulmonary cavity, " included in
an extremely thin bag or pericardium, in whose cavity there
is abundance of watery moisture, as clear as the purest
crystal." The auricle is of a triangular figure ; the apex
resting on the superior surface of the oval ventricle, and the
much dilated base receiving the pulmonary veins, which, like
those of the Tethy5, open into it by many mouths. But the
peculiarity most worthy of notice in this animal is the colour
of its arteries ; an opaque and pure white, like what it would
be were we to suppose them filled with milk, and rendered
very obvious by the darkness of the grounds upon which the
vessels trace their course ; as, for example, in the intestines,
which are of a dark green ; or in the liver, which is of a
blackish brown colour. The finest injections do not produce
any thing, adds Cuvier, more agreeable to the eye of the
anatomist than the white ramifications of the arteries in the
black slug.

The most singular deviations from the normal structure and
disposition of the blood-vessels in the Gasteropoda are, how-
ever, to be found in the celebrated Aplysia. In this mollusque,
the great branchial vein receives the aerated blood from its
little tributaries, which penetrate it in such a manner that
their orifices form imperfect circles on the inner surface. The
vein itself runs along the convex border of a crescent-shaped
membrane, supporting the branchiae, and opens, as usual,
into the auricle ; remarkable for size and the thinness of its
parietes [walls], which resemble fine gauze, the very slender
fleshy filaments forming a pretty network. The ventricle is
oval, and its walls are also thin, although furnished with fleshy
columns, crossed in every direction. The aperture between
it and the auricle is provided with two valves, which hinder
any reflux of blood. The aorta proceeding from the ventricle
divides into two trunks ; the first, trending directly to the left,
pierces the pericardium, after a very short course, to enter the
abdomen ; the second returns at first towards the right, sends
off" a branch, and then leaves the pericardium also at its right
side. The portion enclosed in this cavity has attached to it
two crests composed of small vessels, which rise from the
trunk itself, and again reenter it, without aflbrding the ana-
tomist any clue whereby to guess the use of such a curious

D 3

^8 Natural Hhtori) of MoUuscoiis Animals : —

formation. It is always easy to inflate or inject these crests;
and Cuvier hazards a conjecture that they may be secretory
organs for the production of the liquid which fills the peri-
cardium.

But a still more extraordinary peculiarity remains for our
notice. The large vessel which carries forward the venous
blood to the branchiae, and w^hich may be named either a
vena cava, or a branchial artery, since it fulfils the functions
of both, after sending off arterial branches to the leaflets of
the gills, remains for a certain space smooth and entire ; but
one part curves itself to the left, and another to the right, and
these two branches assume suddenly anew form and structure;
they become, in fact, absolutely confounded with the great
general cavity of the body. Their walls are now formed of
transverse and oblique muscular ribands, which cross in every
direction, but leave between them apertures visible to the
naked eye, and permeable to all sorts of injection ; thus
establishing a free communication between these vessels and
the abdominal cavity, so that the fluids contained in the one
can readily permeate into the other. This structure is so ano-
malous, that Cuvier was for some time doubtful of the accu-
racy of the dissections which seemed to prove it; but at
last he fully satisfied himself, and ascertained distinctly that
there was no other vessel to carry the blood to the branchiae
except the muscular and perforated cavities just described,
and into which all the veins of the body open directly or
indirectly. It follows, therefore, that the fluids shed into the
abdomen can mix directly with the mass of blood, and be
carried to the branchiae with it ; and that the veins perform
the office of absorbent vessels. This vast communication,
says the great naturalist from whom I borrow these anato-
mical details, is, doubtless, the first step to that still greater
which nature has established in insects, where there is no par-
ticular vessels for the nutritive fluid ; and we have already
seen a trace of it in the Cephalopoda, where the venae cavae
and the abdominal cavity communicate together through the
medium of certain spongy glands.

In the genus Orchidium, a naked mollusque, the venae cavae
exhibit a formation in some respects similar to that in Aplysia ;
but I pass over this, to notice another sort of deviation from
the common, in the ear shell (Haliotis), and in some simple
univalves ; as, for example, in Fissurella. The heart in those
generals provided with two auricles; one of which receives the
vein carrying the purified blood from the right branchiae, and
the other that from the left. The auricles open into the
ventricle each by a single and generally narrow orifice ; but

Circulating Sj/stem, 39

in the Chit6nidse each auricle has two distinct and separated
ventricular orifices ; gf which, according to Cuvier, there is
no similar example to be found in the animal kingdom. Fur-
ther, in these genera, the ventricle, or proper heart, is per-
forated by the straight gut, or, in other words, the heart
encircles that intestine ; a peculiarity not to be observed in
other Gasteropoda.

What, however, is the exception and anomaly among Gas-
teropoda, becomes the usual formation in the Conchifera or
bivalved MoUusca ; for in by much the greater number of
them the gut passes through the heart, or rather, as Blainville
explains it, the heart is curved round the rectum, in such a
manner that the two extremities of its transverse diameter
seem to touch. All the bivalved Mollusca have also two
auricles ; one placed on each side of the ventricle, and open-
ing by a narrow neck into it. They receive the blood through
a branchial vein coming from each gill, and transmit it to the
ventricle, which is an oval or spindle-shaped bag, situated in
the medio-dorsal line.* From the ventricle two aortae depart :
a posterior and lesser one, which passes under the rectum,
and distributes its branches to the posterior parts of the
body; and an anterior one, which runs forward even to the
anterior adductor muscle, furnishes branches to the stomach,
to the liver, the foot, and adjoining parts, then curves down-
wards by an anastomosing branch, which follows the margin
of the cloak, to meet and unite with a similar branch from
the posterior aorta ; forming thus a great arch, of which the
inferior branches go to the tentacular fringe of the cloak,
while the others, of greater size, remount and ramify over the
whole surface of that organ.

Of the centripetal system we find that the venous radicles
of the belly and of the anterior parts of the body unite into
two large trunks, which issue from the hepatic region under-
neath the rectum, and, after having received two veins which
have followed the margin of each lobe of the cloak, they open
into the anterior end of a sort of auricle or venous reservoir,
placed longitudinally below the heart in the dorsal line.
This reservoir receives at its posterior end two other rather
large veins, which have gathered the blood and brought it
back from the posterior parts of the body, and even from the
margins of the cloak. From this reservoir the branchial
arteries likewise originate : they are two in number, one on

* In the oyster, " the auricle and ventricle are very thin in their coats ;
so much so as to make them unequal to apply force to the blood ; but the
ventricle is laterally connected to the great muscle, whose action will
accelerate the circulation." (Home\s Comp, Anatomy ^ vol.iii. p. 160.)

D 4

40

Natural History of Molluscous Animals : —

— ?

11 il

I

ill

m>

ill

r%f

f-%

each side, of considerable size,
and direct their course along
the superior margins of the
branchial laminae, to which they
furnish numerous branches.
These form two series ; one for
the internal face of the external
leaf, and the other one for the
external face of the internal
leaf of the branchiae ; but in
consequence of the many ver-
tical and anastomotic branch-
lets, a close vascular network
is the result of the whole ar-
rangement. The veins, draw-
ing their supply from this net-
work, run backwards in a
direction parallel to the arte-
ries, and form a similar net-
work, but on the opposite faces
of the branchiae.

As it offers some excep-
tions to this account of the
distribution of the blood-ves-
sels in the Conchifera in gene-
ral, I am tempted to extract
for you the interesting descrip-
tion of the circulation in Te-
redo navalis, as given by Sir
Everard Home : — " The
heart," he says, " is situated
upon the back of the animal,
near the head; consisting of
two auricles [Jig, 28.*), of a

h

u

Wl

* Figure of Tferfedo navalis, show-
ing the heart and other internal or-
gans, of the natural size, exposed in
a posterior view, a a. The boring-
shells, separated and turned back ; 1,
the digastric muscle ; c, the intestine
passing over it j dd^ the testicles ; e e,
the auricles of the heart ; //, the
ventricle ; g g, the artery going to the

head; h h, the vessels from the branchiae going to the heart; ii, the

branchiae or gills ; k k, ducts of the testicles, traced through their course ;

//, a strong substance, with transverse fibres, having a pile upon it, to

strengthen this, the weakest part of the animal.

Circulating System. - 41

thin, dark-coloured membrane; the auricles open by con-
tracted valvular orifices into two white strong tubes ; these,
united, form the ventricle, which terminates in an artery
that goes to the boring-shell. The heart is loosely attached ;
its action is distinctly seen through the external covering,
and in some instances continued to act after it was laid bare.

" The first contraction is in the two auricles, which are'
shortened in that action. This enlarges the ventricle before
it contracts. The great artery from the ventricle goes directly
to the head, and the vessels that supply the auricles are seen
to come from the gills. The auricles are lined with a black
pigment, so that their contents cannot be seen through their
coats, and the ventricle, from its thickness, is not transparent ;
but the muscles of the boring-shells are of a bright red, and
all the parts between the heart and head are supplied with
red blood."

In the Teredo, then, every part of the blood " passes
through the vessels of the gills, and then through the cavities
of the heart. As this animal is to work a machine capable
of boring a very hard substance, and to go on working during
the whole of that period of life in which its growth is con-
tinued, to make room for the increased bulk, so it requires
that the blood be more highly aerated, and supplied with
greater velocity to these active organs. The heart, also, to
give it greater advantage in these respects, is placed near to
the boring-shells, so that the blood which goes to them is of
the brightest colour.

" In this circulation, the first action of the heart is to
supply the different parts of the body with aerated blood :
upon this the activity of the heart is wholly exerted; the
blood is returned more slowly through the gills, and remains
there a longer time, so as to receive a greater degree of the
influence from the air contained in the water." {Lectures on
Comp. Anatomy, vol. iii. p. 162, 163.)

In the Mollusca tunicata, the circulating apparatus is simpler
than in any of the other orders. The heart of the Ascidia is
an organ with a single cavity, situated near the stomach, and
presents a less distinct muscular structure than it does in
cephalous Mollusca. It is of an oblong or spindle shape, and
the two extremities are prolonged into two vessels, almost
equal to itself in their diameter. One of these vessels receives,
as it is believed, all the blood from the branchiae, and is in
consequence named the branchial vein ; the other, of greater
length, is an aorta to distribute the blood through the whole
system. {Savigny, Mem. sur les Animauoc sans Vertebres, vol. ii.
p. 1130

4^'2 'Natural History of Molluscous Animals.

Such is a very general outline of the circulation in this
tribe ; nor are the particular modifications to which it is
subject, of sufficient interest to detain us. I may just remark,
that the minute vessels of the branchiae form a beautiful net-
work, similar to that on the branchial leaves of bivalves.

The heart has been seen pulsating in several MoUusca
whose bodies possess a considerable degree of transparency.
The pulsations are slow, and often at unequal intervals ; but
this irregularity may be the effect of weakness or of pain ; for
the animals must be placed in unnatural positions, or removed
from their proper element, before the observations can be
made ; and an attention to this circumstance may explain the
fact of a retrograde motion of the circulating fluid, which has
been observed by some naturalists. The blood itself is of a
bluish white colour, and glutinous consistence. Lister tells
us, that when he kept the blood of a snail in a vessel for some
days, it remained liquid and entire, not separating, in the
manner of human blood, into two portions of unequal densi-
ties ; but, when he applied heat, it readily congealed into an
opaque bluish coagulum, just as the human serum would
have done under the same circumstances. But Lister knew
well that the blood of these creatures was not homogeneous ;
for he adds, that with a good microscope it is easily shown
to consist of globules swimming in a limpid fluid ; that these
globules are truly round, and considerably exceed in size
those of human blood ; they are also heavier than the fluid
part, since they gradually sink to the bottom when kept still
in a glass tube. {Exercitatio Anat. de CocJileis, p. 95. Lond.
1694.) The late experiments of Prevost and Dumas have
confirmed those of the old English naturahst : they have
ascertained that the globules of the snail have a diameter one
third greater than those of man * and quadrupeds ; and, what
is more remarkable, they found the globules to be really
spherical, as Lister has asserted, although analogy would have
led us to a different conclusion ; for they are elliptical in birds,
reptiles, and fishes, to which the Mollusca are certainly much
more nearly allied than they are to the Mammalia. [Zoological
Journal^ vol. i. p. 1 78.) The globules in the bivalved Mollusca

* The red globules of human blood, according to the observations of
Mr. Bauer, as corrected by Kater and others, are one five-thousandth part
of an inch in diameter. {Home's Comp.Anat., vol. iii. p. 4., compared with
p. 12.) But in the foetus, the globules, say Prevost and Dumas, differ in
their form and volume from those of the adult ; the former being double
the size of the latter (Bostock's Physiology ^ vol. ii. p. 200.), and approxi-
mating nearer, of course, to the size of those of Mollusca. The fact is
curious, when considered in relation to some speculations of Carus.

Illustrations of British Zoology, 43

are also, according to Poll, an eminent naturalist of Naples,
much larger than in man ; so that he considers the latter to
be to the former as hemp-seed to millet-seed. {Rudolphi^s
Physiology^ by How, vol.i. p. 132.) The red colour of blood
has been attributed to the existence of iron in it in combination
with phosphoric acid ; but it militates against this hypothesis
when we find that the white blood of the Mollusca, although
the contrary has been asserted, contains the same mineral
ingredient : for Erman has detected iron, and very probably
also manganese, in the blood of the Helix pomatia and Pla-
norbis corneus ; and Poli likewise speaks of iron in the blood
of A'rca glycymeris. (Rudolphi^s Physiology, by How, vol. i.
p. 113.) As the following analysis may probably be applied
with safety to the whole class, I extract the passage entire, not-
withstanding it repeats some particulars already noticed : —
" The blood of the Helix pomatia," says M. Gaspard, " is
rather thick, but without viscosity ; it has a faint smell, a
slightly saline taste, and is so abundant that each individual
contains not less than a drachm and a half. It is of a delicate
blue colour, which is neither altered nor modified by change
of aliment, by asphyxia, or by hybernation. It is miscible
with water, but of. greater specific gravity, and falls to the
bottom in visible streaks or entire drops. When exposed to
the atmosphere, it does not spontaneously congeal, like that
of vertebrated animals, but it separates by rest into two dis-
tinct fluids : the one blue, which swims at the top ; the other
colourless and opaque, remaining at the bottom of the vessel.
In a few days it decomposes with fetor [stench]. It is unal-
tered by muriate of barytes, and by alcohol ; is simply dis-
coloured by potash, and by vinegar and other weak acids :
but acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, and, still more, nitrate
of mercury, occasion a copious dense precipitate. Boiling
w^ater, sulphuric and nitric acid, coagulate it strongly, like
albumen." (Zoological Journal, vol. i. p. 177.)

I am. Sir, yours, &c.
Nov. 1^2. 1831. G. J.

Art. VII. Illustrations in British Zoology, By George John-
ston, M.D., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edin-
burgh.

1. Lucerna'ria auri'cula.
Sir,
I DO not think that the discovery of any new object or fact
in natural history ever gave me greater pleasure than the first
sight of the little creature here delineated. Its form is so

44 Illustrations of British Zoology.

singular, and so far removed from any with which non-natu-
ralists are familiar, that some of my friends, on seeing the
drawing, have actually asked to which kingdom, animal or
vegetable, the thing belonged; and to uncommonness of
shape, in adds beauty in colour and in ornament, and much
vivacity in its motions. There is, to my eye, not a more lovely
object among the numerous interesting worms that dwell on
our shores. I had, on a summer's evening, taken a favourite
station by the side of a pellucid pool hewn by nature in the
rock, and was admiring the mimic landscape reflected from
the water, when my attention was caught by what seemed
to be a clot of blood adhering to the frond of a sea-weed ;
it might be, was the passing thought, a small bit of the liver
of some mutilated fish, when, lo ! it moved, and suddenly
expanded before me in all its beauty. It was impossible to
restrain open expression of admiration and pleasing surprise.
It had risen up like an enchanted thing, and in a shape so
novel, that fancy had not imagined its existence among ani-
mated beings ; it displayed its ornaments, the beads and
tassels of its border, with such grace, and its rich colour
contrasted so well with the sombre darkness of the weed on
which it had settled, that the most apathetic would have
been warmed ; while I leaped for very joy, and said within
myself. Surely the Creator of all holds this out to lure his
rational creatures to study his works, and search out his
wisdom !

Our figure {Jig, 29.) is of the natural size, and the individual
from which it was taken was of a clear pinkish red colour. It

adheres by a short stalk, which dilates into eight equal oblong
arms, each terminated by a globose tuft of filaments, tipped
with a gland. The arms are mottled with two rows of spots,
produced by the opacity and configuration of the internal vis-
cera ; and they are connected together by a transparent mem-
brane. Between each of them there is an oval vesicle placed
on the edge of this membrane. Within the stalk there is a

Parasitical Connection of hathrda Squamdria, 45

tube, which, prolonged, seems to form the mouth, of a square
shape, projecting in the centre of the arms.

Lucernaria auricula can move about at will, but has appa-
rently not much power for distant excursions, and little in-
clination to roam. Fixed by means of its stalk, which is
presumed to act as a sucker, on the leaf of a sea- weed in some
sheltered pool near the lowest tide-mark, it escapes its ene-
mies, I know not how ; for it is the most helpless of creatures,
without weapons of offence or defence. It catches little ani-
malcules brought within its reach by the tide or their own
destiny ; and, for this purpose, the tentacula are widely dis-
played, and no sooner have they felt the prey, than they in-
stantly contract, envelope it in their joint embrace, and carry
it to the mouth. Lamarck says, that the globules at the tips
of the filaments or tentacula are suckers ; and if the obser-
vation is correct, it is obvious that this structure must enable
them to retain living prey with great additional obstinacy. ;

This Lucernaria is, I believe, a rare animal on our coasts,
of which it was first ascertained to be a native by Mr. Mont-
agu, who took it on the coast of Devonshire, and gave a
figure and description of it in the ninth volume of the Lin-
nean Transactions, In the edition of Pennanfs British Zoo-
logy published in 1812, there is an account of it borrowed
from Montagu's paper, but erroneous in many respects.
Dr. Fleming's description, in his history of British Animals,
is, however, evidently original. He says, the species is found
on different parts of the coast. The colour, according to him,
is " brownish : " according to Montagu, it is variable ; and this
may, with proper limitation, be correct, for our specimen was
of a fine transparent red. It was taken in Berwick Bay.

Lucernaria belongs to the class Radiata, order y^calepha
Cuvier, Mollia of Lamarck.

George Johnston.
Berwick-upon-Tweed, Nov, 10. 1831.

Art. VIII. On the Parasitical Connection of Lathrce^a Squamaria,
and the peculiar Structure of its subterranean Leaves, Read
at the Linnean Society in November, 1829.

Our readers will remember that in Vol. II. p. 105. Mr.
Bowman, in noticing certain differences in habit and external
organs which he had found to obtain in specimens of this
interesting plant procured from, or observed in, various
localities, incidentally announced his having discovered its true

46 Parasitical Connection of LatJir<^^a Squamm^id,

organisation and mode of growth. This discovery is the
subject of a luminous paper, illustrated by eighteen figures
from Mr. Bowman's pencil, in the sixteenth volume of the
Linnean Society's Transactions,

In his highly interesting paper, the author details, with
much clearness and precision, the result of his investigations
on the organisation of this singular plant ; and as they ex-
hibit some striking exceptions from the general laws of vegeta-
ble physiology, not hitherto known, we shall present them to
our readers as fully as our limited space will allow, and illus-
trate them by several of the original drawings confided to us
by the liberality of the council of the Linnean Society.

It has long been known, that every part of the Lathrae^a
Squamaria, except the flower-stems, is at all times strictly
subterraneous ; but we are not aware that any botanist has
hitherto detected the nature of its parasitical connection, or
the anomalous structure of its leaves. It may indeed be
said to set the ordinary laws of vegetable life at defiance,
even in its infancy ; for no sooner has the embryo "plant
emerged from its cotyledons, than, instead of seeking the
surface of the soil, it takes a downward direction, till it comes
in contact with the roots by which it is nourished, after which
it spreads horizontally among them. Its real root, it appears,
is spindle-shaped and branched, terminating in forked fibres ;
which however do not draw moisture from the soil in the
ordinary way, but are furnished at and near their extremi-
ties with very minute tubers, which fix themselves on the
roots of trees and extract their juices. Similar tuberiferous
fibres are copiously produced on the subterraneous stem be-
tween the imbricated scales. The tubers, though not larger
than a small pin head, are exceedingly numerous, hemispheri-
cal, and of a succulent and tender texture. When fixed on
the root, they throw down a funnel-shaped process or tap,
which penetrates through the cortical layers into the al-
burnum (where the sap is in the greatest energy), and com-
so ^J^^^ municates with a system of vessels

of a jointed or beaded structure.
These vessels traverse the substance
of the tuber, and convey their stolen
contents along the connecting fibre
for the support of the parasite. The
annexed figure (Jig. 30.) is a per-
pendicular section of a tuber, highly
magnified, showing the insertion
of its tap-shaped base into the al-
burnum.

a?id Structure of its subterranean Leaves, 47

Kot less wonderfully constructed and admirably adapted
for their situation and office are the imbricated scales, or
leaves, of the subterraneous stem, which, in size, shape, and
colour, very remarkably resemble the human teeth, and have
suggested its various names of Dentaria, Squamaria, and
toothwort. These have generally been considered as roots,
or scaly appendages to the roots ; but Mr. Bowman has
proved by numerous minute and delicate dissections under
the microscope, illustrated by a series of beautiful and highly
magnified drawings, and by a description and reasoning
which we regret our space will not allow us to follow through
all their details, that they are real leaves, adapted by their
peculiar organisation for their subterranean situation, where,
with the ordinary vessels of these organs, they could not
have performed their functions. We shall endeavour, with
the assistance of the drawings, to make this intelligible, after
giving the author's preliminary glance at the usual process
of vegetable life. " By laws which almost universally pre-
vail in the vegetable kingdom, plants imbibe moisture from
the soil by means of their radical fibres, and gases and
moisture from the atmosphere through the medium of pores
in the cuticle of their leaves. These elements are conveyed
into the parenchyma, where innumerable and inconceivably
delicate organs, stimulated by light and heat, throw off the
oxygen, and retain the hydrogen and carbon. These essen-
tial ingredients at once produce the green colour, and are
converted, by a mysterious and hidden process, into the
several substances of the vegetable body." The succulent
interior substance of the leaf of the Lathrae^a is pervaded
longitudinally by a number of parallel cavities or chambers, of
nearly its whole length, and whose sides are full of ridges
and hollows like the human ear. The entire inner surface
of these cells is thickly beset with innumerable papillae or
glands, each fixed on a pedicel, and so minute as not to be
discernible without a good microscope. A longitudinal sec-
tion of the leaf and one of its cavities is shown in the annexed
figure {Jig, 31.)j and a cross section ex-
hibiting all the cavities divided in the
middle, with their papillae, at^. 32., all
much magnified. The only opening into
the cells is between the involuted lower
portion of the leaf and the leafstalk, and
is so narrow and completely concealed as
to elude observation. It may, however,
be detected in a thin longitudinal section of the leaf, and is
seen inj%. 32. As the cuticle of the scales is not perfo-

48 Parasitical Connection of Lathrai'a Squamdria.

rated by any absorbing or perspiring pores, the author con-
32 tends that their office is

performed by the papil*
lae, and therefore that the
imbricated scales are real
leaves. " In the case of
the LathraeX where they
(the leaves) are destined to perform their functions, not
only in the dark, but buried in the earth, such an arrange-
ment (the general law) would have been inexpedient ; it is
therefore substituted by another, admirably adapted to their
peculiar circumstances and situation. Had the cuticle been
furnished with air valves, the soil would have continually
clogged and impeded their ofEce; they are therefore re-
moved by a contrivance, as beautiful as wise, and placed
within the convoluted chambers excavated for them in the
interior of the leaves, where they perform, securely and
unseen, their destined office."

In the course of this able and interesting paper, the author
dissents from the general opinion that the sickly colour of
this and other parasites is to be attributed to their growing
in the shade, as some suppose, or is a consequence of their
parasitical condition, as Linnaeus asserts, or of both com-
bined; and maintains that the total absence of green arises,
at least as much, from their wanting true leaves and a cuticle
perforated with absorbing and perspiring pores. To support
this view, he instances two parasites of British growth : one
of which, C^scuta europse'a, dodder, is destitute of leaves, and
has not a tinge of green, though growing in the full light ;
while the other, Fiscum album*, mistletoe (perhaps the most
strictly parasitical plant we have), is furnished with leaves,
and is green.

* As connected with this subject, and as exciting to further research
on the plants adverted to, it may be worth the space here to present
a remark which Mr. Bowman expresses in a note at the foot of p. 410. : —

" I have observed that the mistletoe dies with the tree on which it
grows ; and, from a notice in the Magazine of Natural History, vol. ii.
p. 294. [by our correspondent L. E. O.], it seems that the Lathrae^a Squa-
maria does so too. It has long been doubted whether Listera Nidus avis
[Neottia Nidus avis of Swartz] be strictly parasitical. Whatever it may
be in the earlier stages of its growth, it certainly is not so in its more
advanced state. If it be carefully got up in a clod, and the soil afterward
washed from around it, the leaves of the central root or caudex may be
seen to terminate in a short curved spur, which tapers to a fine point, and
evidently is not attached to any other vegetable. The cuticle of the stem
and it bracteas have no perspiring pores."

4-9

REVIEWS.

Art. I. The British Naturalist ; or, Sketches of the more inter-
esting Productions of Britain and the surrounding Sea, in the
Scenes ivhich they inhabit ; and with relation to the General
Economy of Nature, and the Wisdom and Power of its Author,
Vols. I. and II. l2mo. London ; Whittaker, Treacher, and Co. ;
1830.

We take shame to ourselves for having so long neglected
to notice this interesting little w^ork, the first volume of which
has been lying on our table, unheeded, we blush to say, for
more than a year and a half! We can assure the author we
intended no disrespect to him by this delay ; a delay, indeed,
which we the less regret, as it enables us to " kill two birds
with one stone ; " or, in other words, to introduce our readers
to the second volume also, which we have now received. Tar-
dily, however, as we have at last entered on the task, we must
content ourselves even now with taking but a slight and hasty
glimpse at the work before us. Our limits would absolutely
forbid us from following our author step by step in all his
rambles

" O'er moss and moor, by mountain and by flood ; "

and, besides, our wish is, to prevail on our readers to go to
the book itself, rather than allow them to put up with what
at best must necessarily be but an imperfect and garbled
account of its multifarious contents. Works on natural his-
tory, both of the scientific and the popular cast, calculated
respectively for the use of the learned few and of the unlearned
many, have abounded in the present day ; and the circum-
stance may be regarded as at once both a proof of the increas-
ing taste for the study of nature, and in great measure as the
promoting cause of such increase. Without drawing invi-
dious comparisons between the respective merits of these two
distinct classes of literary productions, or praising one at the
expense of the other, suffice it to say, once for all, that we
think each very good and very useful in its way. " I admit,"
Vol. V. — No. 23. e

50 The British Naturalist.

says the writer, in his preface, " the merit of the systems and
subdivisions : for those who devote themselves to a single
science, they are admirable ; but to the great body of the
people they are worse than useless." So far from decrying
scientific works, we take the greatest delight in them ; yet at
the same time we profess ourselves admirers of the Selborne
school. Wishing to see a love of nature become more general
and diffused, and convinced as we are " how delightful and
how profitable it would be, if all would be their own natu-
ralists, and go to the living fountain instead of the stagnant
pool," we hail with satisfaction the appearance of any work
which has a tendency to create and foster a taste for natural
history in these kingdoms. Just such a work is the British
Naturalist, Addressed, as it were, " ad populum," and put
forth in a form intelligible to all, the book can hardly fail of
attracting the favourable attention of the public, and obtaining
a very extensive circulation. We are pleased also with the
general tone of good feeling which pervades the whole. In
the introductory chapter, which contains many excellent and
judicious remarks, the student is directed to the proper end
and object of his studies in the field of nature, the know-
ledge and adoration of God. We extract the concluding
paragraph of this portion of the work : —

" The only sure way to become naturalists, in the most pleasing sense
of the term, is, to observe the habits of the plants and animals that we see
around us, not so much with a view of finding out what is uncommon, as
of being well acquainted with that which is of every-day occurrence. Nor
is this a task of difficulty, or one of dull routine. Every change of eleva-
tion or exposure is accompanied by a variation both in plants and in ani-
mals ; and every season and week, nay, almost every day, brings something
new ; so that, while the book of nature is more accessible and more easily
read than the books of the library, it is at the same time more varied. In
whatever place, or at whatever time, one may be disposed to take a walk ;
in the most sublime scenes, or on the bleakest wastes ; on arid downs, or
by the margins of rivers or lakes ; inland, or by the sea-shore ; in the wild
or on the cultivated ground; and in all kinds of weather and all seasons
of the year; nature is open to our enquiry. The sky over us, the eartb
beneath our feet, the scenery around, the animals that gambol in the open
spaces, those that hide themselves in coverts, the birds that twitter on the
wing, sing in the grove, ride upon the wave, or float along the sky, with
the fishes that tenant the waters, the insects that make the summer air
alive ; all that God has made, is to us for knowledge, and pleasure, and use-
fulness, and health ; and when we have studied and known the wonders of
His workmanship, we have made one important step toward the adoration
of His omnipotence, and obedience to His will." (p. 38, 39.)

After the introduction, which we recommend to the atten-
tive perusal of our readers, the subject matter of the remain-
ing portion of the first volume is distributed into six heads, or
chapters, under the respective titles of the Mountain, the Lake,

The British Naturalist. 51

the River, the Sea, the Moor, and the Brook. This plan, it is
intimated, has been adopted in order that the subjects might
be " viewed in those masses into which we find them grouped
in nature ; the plant or the animal having been taken in con-
junction with the scenery, and the general and particular use ;
and, when that arose naturally, the lesson of morality or
natural religion." The boundaries thus prescribed could not,
it is evident, be very rigidly adhered to ; and, accordingly,
our author, in his descriptive narrative, rambles about " ad
libitum " fi'om one object to another, just as we should have
been disposed to do ourselves, had we actually performed,
amid the wilds of nature, these very excursions, which are
here only presented to the imagination. The consequence is,
that subjects are occasionally introduced into each depart-
ment, which might with equal, or perhaps greater, propriety,
have been treated of under some other. This, however, if it
be an evil at all, is but a trifling one ; and as the plan of the
work is at any rate simple, natural, and inartificial, we shall
not quarrel with it on that score. But not to tarry longer at
the threshold, we shall enter at once " in medias res," and
proceed to point out what we conceive to be some of the
beauties and some of the errors of the volumes before us.

In the second chapter, " The Mountain," i. e. the first after
the introduction, some interesting particulars are given rela-
tive to the history of the wood-cat, which, our author strenu-
ously contends, is a distinct species from the common or
domestic kind. We are not prepared to deny this position, in
the face of authority which appears to be grounded on know-
ledge and experience of the subject ; though hitherto we have
always been accustomed to follow the vulgar opinion, that the
one is only a variety of the other. And still we would ask —
Is there more difference between our domestic favourite and
its prototype of the woods, than is reasonably to be looked
for in the case of two animals in such widely different condi-
tions ? " Among domesticated animals," it must be admitted,
** colour proves nothing:" but as to size, habits, and dispo-
sitions, is there not found as great a discrepance between
individuals of the domestic variety, as exists between the
generality of these and the wild cat ? Some, for instance, are
docile, gentle, and fondling in the extreme * ; while others,

* Cats are generally said to be attached to places, not to persons ; and
the remark, in the main, may be true enough. We have known many
instances, however, of their showing a marked and decided preference for
particular individuals. In one instance a cat attached herself inseparably
to a labourer in our employ, attending him at his work, and lying on his
coat like a dog ; and retiring at intervals to the barn or the shrubbery, &c.,

E 2

52 TJie- British Naturalisf,

treat them how you will, are ill-tempered and untamably
ferocious. One, again, is an expert and assiduous mouser,
destroying not only the murine and feathered race, but insects,
reptiles (e. g. snakes), bats, hedgehogs, and even the more
formidable and hard-bitten weasel.* Another is sluggish and
inactive, almost destitute of tlje usual predatious propensity,
and altogether useless in its own profession. Strange as it
may at first appear, it is a most difficult task in some cases to
trace with accuracy our domesticated animals to their true
and undoubted origin. In the present instance we confess we
hesitate to give a decided opinion, and should be glad of a lit-
tle further information. The wood-cat is here represented as

" rather a dangerous animal to catch in a trap, as it is very tenacious of
life; and the moment it is loosened it springs and fastens" with great fury.
Por the same reason, it is dangerous to wound or even to irritate it ; and if
it cannot be killed outright, the safest way is to let it alone." (p. 47.)

Is not the peril of encountering this tiger of the British forests
a little overcharged ?

As we offer our remarks in the same order in which the
passages which suggest them occur, we must be excused if
we appear to jump rather abruptly from the consideration of
animals to that of plants, and back again from plants to ani-
mals. In ascending the " mountain," our naturalist, as might
be expected, meets with several species of Faccinium, of
which there are four indigenous to Britain ; viz. Faccinium
uliginosum, the great bilberry (by far the least common of the
whole) ; V. Myrtiilus, the common whortleberry or bilberry ;
V. Fitis IdaeX the red whortleberry or box-leaved bilberry ;
and V, Oxycoccos (or, according to more modern nomen-
clature, Oxycoccos palustris), the true cranberry. These
plants are each of them distinguished by such well-marked
characters, that there can, to a botanist at least, be no such
thing as mistaking one for another. At page ,57. not a little
confusion appears to be unnecessarily made, owing to the
names, either Latin or English, which are there applied to
one or more of the above species. " The beautiful myrtle-

for mice or birds, which, when caught, she brought and laid at his feet,
sometimes to the number of six or eight, or more, in a day. She would
accompany him when he went a-field, through wet grass, to fetch up the
cows to the yard ; and has been known to follow him from her proper
residence (in spite of repeated efforts to drive her back) to his own house,
a distance of near two miles, and, remaining there the night, return with
him in the morning as he came back again to his work.

* All the above-named animals we have known to have been destroyed
by a favourite cat of our own.

The British NuiuralisL 53

leaved bilberry " is designated by the specific name " mon-
tanum," instead of its good, old, appropriate one, Myrtillus,
which, by the way, is adopted for the plant at page 165. of
the second volume. Why this unnecessary and (as we be-
lieve) unauthorised change of name, calculated to mislead the
young, and perhaps somewhat perplex the more experienced
botanist? In the same page (57.) " ^'^itis IdaeV (it should
have been written " /^accinium Fitis Ida3\a") is called the
*' cowberry;" which, though we never heard it before, may,
for aught we know to the contrary, be one of its provincial
appellations. " The bush," says our author, *' is low and
hard, and so is the berry, which, notwithstanding its fine red
colour, is generally left to the birds." We can tell him from
our own experience, that, in spite of its inferiority in size, and
different appearance, it is not unfrequently gathered for sale,
and passed off upon those who know no better, — the experi-
ment has been attempted upon ourselves, — for the genuine
cranberry; and though vastly inferior to that in size, and
flavour, and juiciness, it is yet no contemptible fruit for tarts.
Again, we read, " In the bogs, at about the same elevation,
the cranberry, or crowberry (Oxycoccos palustris), is very
frequently met with, but it is harsh and austere." Now^, the
English name " crowberry " is appropriated to a very different
thing, jE'mpetrum nigrum, a dioecious plant, whose foliage
much resembles that of the heaths (isVicse); and, though it
may possibly be a local appellation for the cranberry, would
have been better omitted, for the sake of avoiding confusion.
It ought to have been added, too, that although the fruit of
the cranberry may be (as stated, and as its name implies * )
" harsh and severe " when eaten raw, it has an excellent
flavour, and is highly and most deservedly esteemed, when
preserved and used in confectionary^ It is proverbially said,
that " there is no disputing about tastes ; " and therefore we
have no right, perhaps, to call in question that of the author,
for preferring the fruit of the cloudberry (i^ubus Chamae-
morus) to that of the Swedish bramble (i^ubus arcticus) ; and
yet this preference does not a little surprise us.

" The dwarf crimson bramble," we are told, " and more frequently the
luscious cloudberry (i?ubus Chamaemorus), are found fast by the margin of
the snow, as the limit of vegetation. The first of these is a very pleasant
fruit ; but even in the bleakest parts of Scotland it is rare, and it is not
very plentiful even in Lapland f j but the cloudberry is more abimdant, and

* The specific (or, as it is now become, the generic) name, Oxycoccos, is
derived from oxysy sharp or sour, and kokkos, a berry.

-|- Is not this directly at variance with the testimony of Linnaeus, who,
though he calls it " rarissima planta," a very rare plant, immediately adds,

E 3

Mt T7ie British Naturalist,

it is much better. The fruit is single, upon the top of a footstalk, and in
form, size, and colour [!] it is not unlike the mulberry, after which it is
partly named ; but in flavour, taking the place where it is found into con-
sideration, it is superior to all the mulberries that ever grew." (p. 62.)

This is surely rather a high-flown encomium on the cloud-
berry 5 nor is it correct to compare the fruit in size and
colour, and still less, we think, in flavour, to its half name-
sake, the mulberry. We have ourselves slaked our thirst,
ere now, with this ethereal lierry, when exploring the snow-
capped summits of the Scottish mountains, and well know how
grateful to the palate, and how refreshing, on such occasions,
even a far inferior fruit may prove. More frequently have we
been regaled, from the garden, with the high-flavoured and
fragrant berry of J?ubus arcticus ; a berry so fragrant, indeed,
that if a few only be gathered in a saucer, and brought into
the house, they perfume almost the whole room. * And we
must say that, to us at least, this latter fruit, when put in com-
petition with its rival, is, in point of flavour, as " Hyperion to
a satyr." Could it be readily produced in sufficient quanti-
ties, it would form a valuable addition to our desserts ; and in

" occurrit copiose per Lapponiam desertam, prsesertim ad tuguria et casas
liapponum ? " (Flora Lapponica.) " It grows abundantly in the wild parts
of Lapland, especially near the huts and cottages of the Laplanders."
Again, in his Lapland Tour, he says, " I wish those who deny that certain
plants are peculiar to certain countries could see how abundantly the birch,
the Lapland willow, the strawberry-leaved bramble (i^ubus arcticus), &c.,
flourish in this district [Pithpea]." (Lachesis Lapponica, vol. i. p. 203.)

* " Baccae omnibus Europaeis fructibus fragranti odore saporeque palmam
praeripiunt." {Linncei Flora Suecica.) " The berries [of ^ubus arcticus]
surpass all European fruits in fragrance of scent and flavour."

The editor of the Lapland Tour (Sir J. E. Smith), speaking of J?ubus
Chamaemorus, observes, in a note : " The arcticus is a much more valuable
plant for its fruit, which partakes of the flavour of the raspberry and straw-
berry, and makes a most delicious wine, used only by the nobility in
Sweden." (Vol. i. p. 52.) " Confici curant magnates per Norlandiam e
baccis syrupum, gelatinam, vinum rubeatum, &c., quae partim ab illis ipsis
consumuntur, partim Holmiam ad araicos mittuntur, tanquam bellaria sua-
vissima, rarissimaque ; et sane inter omnes baccas Sueciae sylvestres videntur
hae tenere primas." (Fl. Lap.) " The nobility in Norlandia cause to be
made of the berries syrup, jelly, bramble wine, &c., which are partly con-
sumed by themselves, and partly sent to their friends at Stockholm, as the
most choice and delicious dainties ; and, indeed, among all the wild berries
of Sweden, these seem to hold the first place." The pretty compliment
Linnaeus pays to this little plant is worthy of being recorded : — " Ingratus
essem erga beneficam banc plantam, quae me toties fame et cursu fere pro-
stratum vinoso baccarum suarum nectare refocillavit, si ejus integram non
exhiberem descriptionem." (Fl. Lap.) " I should be ungrateful towards
this excellent plant, which has so often refreshed me with the nectareous
juice of its berries, when almost overcome with hunger and fatigue, were I
not to give a complete description of it." He then proceeds to give a
minute description of the plant and its several parts.

The British NcUtiralist, 55

these days of horticultural improvement * it might be worth
while to try the experiment, by bestowing on this beautiful
little flower some extra care in the cultivation, with a view to
increase the produce of its fruit, and thus combine the useful
with the agreeable.

We must now turn to a different subject. Our author's
forte lies evidently in ornithology. In this department of
natural history he seems to have made deep and accurate
research. Accordingly, we are presented throughout these
volumes with many interesting remarks, and much useful
information, the result, as it appears, of close personal ob-
servation, on the subject of British birds. In particular, his
remarks on the eagles, and the larger birds of prey, are the
more valuable, inasmuch as these species constitute some of
the least accessible subjects in natural history. The birds
themselves are, many of them, of rare occurrence ; and, even
when met with, are to be seen, perhaps, but for a few mo-
ments in passing. They suffer us not to approach them near ;
and consequently are difficult to be procured for minute
examination. They differ, too, in many cases, so much in
their plumage, according to sex or age f , that the greatest
confusion has prevailed respecting their several species, which
even yet, perhaps, have not been thoroughly ascertained.
We cannot now enter into particulars, but incline to think
that the reader of the British Naturalist will find consider-
able light thrown on this subject at p. 113, &c.

In treating of the golden eagle, our author has been
tempted, in an evil hour, we think, to introduce the story of
Hannah Lamond; whose infant (so the tale goes) was
snatched up by an eagle, and carried ofF to the eyry, but
rescued again, mirabile dictu ! safe and sound, by the mother
herself, whose maternal feelings roused her to such a pitch of
physical strength and boldness as to enable her actually to
scale a hitherto inaccessible clifF, which even Mark Steuart,
the sailor, turned his back upon and attempted in vain ! This,
no doubt, is a very pretty story, and afFectingly told (we have
even seen tears shed at the narration), but, unfortunately, it
is wholly incredible. Such a tale might have cut a figure in
some fashionable novel ; but is, we presume to think, quite
out of place in a grave work on natural history. Surely there

* Linnaeus says it is difficult of cultivation, and commonly proves barren
in the gardens : — "In hortis non facile colitur, et communiter sterilis eva-
dit." {Fl. Lap.} We have ourselves found it thrive very well, and spread
itself when planted in peat soil ; nor has it proved shy of bearing fruit.

f " iEtate sexuque variant." {Linncci Syslema Nattcrce.)

E 4

56 The British Naturalist.

is enough to engage our interest and excite our admiration
really to be found in nature, without having recourse to the
marvellous and fictitious. We must protest against such
clap-traps, introduced merely ad captandum vulgus, at the
expense of all truth and probability. Should the work go, as
we hope it will, to a second edition, we trust the author will,
for his own sake, have the good sense to erase this fable from
his pages, unless he be content to rank among those

" who greedily pursue

Things that are rather wonderful than true j

Make nat'ral history rather a gazette

Of rarities stupendous and far-fet ;

Believe no truths are worthy to be known,

That are not strongly vast and overgrown." * '^

As fair specimens of our author's style, we extract from the
third chapter the following valuable passages on the beauty
and the use of lakes ; observing, as we pass, that he is always
for pointing out, as far as discoverable, the end and object, the
good effected, by any phenomenon in nature : —

" To the enthusiast in the picturesque, nature no where presents an
aspect of such varied beauty as amid these combinations of hill, and water,
and glade. That monotony which characterises a wide expanse of unbroken
plain, even when clothed in a mantle of uniform hue, and that unrelieved
sense of awe and loneliness which a mountain range, without this soothing
accompaniment, is apt to suggest, are alike absent here. All that is most
sublime is softened by all that is most beautiful, and all that is most beau-
tiful is elevated by all that is most sublime. The pervading and perpetual
presence of water clothes the earth in its richest robe of verdure ; and
there is a spirit of life and motion over all, which prevents that feeling of
oppression and melancholy with which man finds himself bowed down in
the immediate presence of nature, in her mightier agencies. The air is full
of soothing sounds, poured from a thousand naturd sources ; the ripple of
the mimic wave upon the mimic beach; the murmur of the cascade; the
roaring of the cataract ; the sighing of the breeze, or the rushing of the
blast among the rocking woods, all blend into one wild but enchanting
harmon}', repeated by a thousand voices, from hill, and grove, and glade,
that it might well suggest a mythology like that of the Greeks of old, and
lead the imagination to people every cliff, and stream, and tree with a
dryad or a faun." (p. 96.)

After noticing the fertilising effects of lakes, and the more
equable temperature produced by their presence, the author
thus proceeds : —

" But lakes in mountainous countries have another advantage; they
prevent those floods of the rivers which are so destructive where there
are no lakes ; and if they be in warm latitudes, they prevent the soil from
being burnt up and becoming desert. Rains fall with greater violence upon
varied surfaces than upon plains, because there the atmosphere is subject
to more frequent and rapid changes ; the slopes of the surfaces precipitate
the water sooner into the rivers, and thus the rain passes off in an over-

* Butler's " Elephant in the Moon," 1. 527,

The British Naturalist, 57

whelming flood. By the interposition of lakes this is prevented : they act
as regulating dams ; the discharging river cannot rise higher than the lake ;
and thus when the lake is large, a flood which otherwise would flow off in
a day, and destroy as it flowed, is made to discharge itself peaceably in
weeks. Besides the preventing of devastation, this is of advantage to the
country. When the flood passes off, while the rain is falling, and the air
is moist and not in a state for evaporation, the land derives but a small
and temporary advantage from the rain : but when the water is confined
till the state of the atmosphere changes, a considerable portion of it is
taken up by the process of evaporation, and descends in fertilising showers.
A decisive proof of the advantage of lakes, and the casualties that result
from the want of lakes to regulate the discharge of mountain rivers, was
unfortunately given in the floods in Scotland, in the summer of 1829. The
whole of the rivers that flow eastward from the Grampians have steep courses,
but no lakes to regulate their flow; and the consequence was, that they
threw down the bridges, flooded the fields, washed away the soil and
crops, and did other damage ; while those streams farther to the north,
that roll an equal or a greater mass of water, but which are expanded into
lakes, did no harm. Mountainous countries, in which there are no lakes,
are usually barren, or in the progress of becoming so. The Andes in
America, the ridges in Southern Africa, and many other lakeless elevations,
are utterly sterile. The mountains of Scotland, and even those of the
north of England, have little beauty where there are no lakes; they are
covered with brown heather, unbroken by any admixture, save dingy stone
and red gravelly banks, where the rains have torn them to pieces. There
are none of those sweet grassy dells and glades, and none of those delightful
thickets, coppices, and clumps of trees, that spot the watered regions."
(p. 99— 101.)

In celebrating the praises of the Bala Lake, within a page
of the foregoing extract, our naturalist, mounting his Pegasus
without a curb, becomes quite poetical and enthusiastic.

" Bala," he says, " though designated by the humble name of a pool, is
capable of softening down the fiery spirit of the Cambrian, as he gazes on
it from the mountain's ridge ; and the waters are so limpid, that * the
lasses of Bala,' by laving their beauties in it on May-morn, excel in
brightness all the other daughters of the principality." (p. 102.)

We mean no offence to the " lasses of Bala,'* whose
charms we shall not call in question ; but it requires a spirit
of gallantry far beyond what we profess to be possessed of, to
put implicit faith in such statements. In short, we consider
such effusions as no better than downright trash. The fol-
lowing passage is in better taste, and more consistent with
sober truth and reality : —

" The most apparently trivial habits of organised bodies are just as
demonstrative of infinite wisdom, as those that attract the vulgar by theii-
novelty, or by some real or fancied resemblance to the marvellous among
mankind. The times at which the heron resorts to the water to fish, are
those at which the fish come to the shores and shallows to feed upon
insects, and when, as they are themselves splashing and dimpling the
water, they are the least apt to be disturbed by the motions of the heron.
The bird alights in the quiet way that has been mentioned ; then wades
into the water to its depth, folds its long neck partially over its back, and
forward again, and with watcliful eye awaits till a fish comes within the

58 The British Naturalist,

range of its beak. Instantaneously it darts, and the prey is secured.
That it should fish only in the absence of the sun, is also a wonderful
instinct. Every one who is an angler, or is otherwise acquainted with the
habits of fish in their native element, knows how acute their vision is, and
how much they dislike shadows in motion, or even at rest, projected from
the bank. It is not necessary that the shadow should be produced by the
bright sun ; full daylight will do it ; and we have seen a successful fly-
fishing instantly suspended, and kept so for a considerable time, by the
accidental passage of a person along the opposite bank of the stream ; nay,
we once had our sport interrupted by a cow coming to drink ; so alarmed
are fish, especially the trout and salmon tribe, at the motion of small
shadows upon the water, though shadow, generally speaking, be essential
to their surface-operations. They do not feed, and therefore we may con-
clude that they do not so well discern [?] small bodies upon the surface,
when the sun is bright. Fishes are, in fact, in part, nocturnal animals ;
and the heron, that lives upon them, and catches them only in their feeding-
places, is partially, also, a nocturnal animal. There is one case in which
we have observed herons feeding indiscriminately in sun and shade ; and
that is, when a river has been flooded to a great extent, and the flood has
passed off, leaving the fish in small pools over the meadows. How the
herons find out these occasions it is difficult to say; but we have seen
several pairs come after a flood to a river which they never visited upon
any other occasion, and within many miles of which a heronry, or even the
nest of a single pair, was never observed." (p. 106 — 108.)

" The case char (Sahno alpinus)," we are informed, '* is
found chiefly, if not exclusively, in Winander-mere." If by
this be meant the fish usually known by the name of char in
the north of England (of which, however, from the account
here given, we entertain some doubt), it occurs more particu-
larly in Coniston and Buttermere lakes. The char which
we have there seen has the eyes remarkably prominent ; the
back rises more into an arched form than that of the trout,
and the belly is rather concave to correspond ; so that the
whole fish is in the form of a gentle curve, or a bow slightly
bent. We did not know that our char ever entered the salt
water. It certainly is a most excellent fish; superior, we
think, to the trout, and deservedly esteemed, independently
of its rarity. We apprehend our author must be speaking
of a different species. The genus ^Salmo still requires much
investigation ; the true diagnosis of the species being a per-
plexing knot in natural history, which has not yet been
unravelled.

Variety, and species, and even genus, are terms continually
used synonymously in ordinary conversation ; and it is quite
surprising to see how little their true meaning, as employed
in natural history, is generally understood, even by people of
education. But we should not have expected that an accom-
plished naturalist would have committed the vulgar blunder
of confounding these terms ; yet so it is. '' Of the dragon
fly (Libellula)," we are told, «« there are several varieties,"

The British Naturalist. \S&

&c. The author evidently means several species. True it is,
that of some of these species, there are several varieties, espe-
cially in the smaller kinds, as A'grion puella and Calepteryx
Virgo [Stephens), each of which occurs of such totally diver-
sified hues, that an inexperienced observer v^^ould at once
suppose them to be so many distinct species.

A lively and accurate description of the most common-
place occurrence in nature never fails to afford pleasure in
the perusal, just as a faithful sketch of some homely scene
always gratifies the beholder. The following picture of the
lashing of the beach by the waves of the sea is drawn to the
life ; —

" Even when seen from the pebbly beach of a lee-shore, the ocean in a
:$torm is a sight both to be enjoyed and remembered. The wave comes
rolling onward, dark and silent, till it meets with the reflux of its prede-
cessor, which produces a motion to seaward on the ground, and throws the
approaching wave ofl'its equilibrium ; its progress is arrested for a moment ;
the wall of water vibrates, and as it now meets the wind, instead of moving
before it, its crest becomes hoary with spray ; it shakes, it nods, it curls
forward, and for a moment the liquid column hangs suspended in the air ;
but down it dashes in one volume of snow-white foam, which dances and
ripples upon the beach. There is an instant retreat, and the clean and
smooth pebbles, as they are drawn back by the reflux of the water, emu-
late in more harsh and grating sounds the thunder of the wave." (p. 206.)

They who doubt (for such we believe there are) the specific
difference between the herring and the pilchard, will find
some ready marks of distinction between the two pointed out
at p. 282.

" In the pilchard, the dorsal fin is placed exactly over the centre of
gravity, so that if the fish be suspended by it, the body hangs in a horizontal
direction. In the herring, it is placed farther back than the centre of
gravity, so that the head droops when the fish is lifted by it. The same
distinction holds in the fry as well as in the full-grown fish. The fry of
both are taken in great numbers, and known by the common name of
sprats."

We shall detain our readers only a little longer with any
remarks on the contents of the first volume; but we cannot
refrain from pointing out what we conceive to be a palpable
error on the subject of that amusing bird, the swift. " The
nest," says the British Naturalist (p. 365.), " is constructed
much in the same manner as that of the common swallow."
Now, the swallow's nest, it is well known, is a neat piece of
masonry, composed externally of much the same materials as
that of the marten ; that is, of mud or clay : but as the swift,
by choice at least, never settles on the ground, and, if it does
by accident, is scarcely able, from the shortness of its legs *
and the length of its wings, to rise again into the air, we are

* The specific name, ^^pus, signifies without feet.

60 The Brithh Naturalist.

at a loss to conceive how it can collect mud or clay for the
purposes of nidification : nor is the fact so ; for the swifts'
nests which we have examined in the days of our youth were
loose and slovenly structures, composed chiefly of feathers
and such other substances as might be collected by the bird
in the air. We never detected the swift in the act of " pulling
grass, feathers, &c., very dexterously from other birds," and
therefore cannot speak to the point ; but that such may be
the case is by no means improbable.

Entomology is a department of natural history in which
our author appears to have made no very, great proficiency.
He speaks (p. 366.) of moths being " always indolent."
Doubtless, like all other animals, they are so, when at rest ;
and the majority of moths being nocturnal insects, the period
of rest to them is during the daytime : but many Phalae^nae
fly abroad by day as well as by night, and evince no incon-
siderable activity and power of flight. Every person of the
least observation must have witnessed the evolutions of the
common golden Y moth (A^octua gamma) for example,
which visits our gardens all through the summer, and to a
late period of the autumn, hovering about the flowers that are
still in bloom, somewhat in the manner of the humming-bird
sphinx (Macroglossa stellatarum), inserting its proboscis into
the blossoms, and adroitly extracting the nectareous juices,
while it poises itself on the wing.

The second volume of the British Naturalist, to which we
now advert, contains (besides a short introduction) three
parts severally entitled the Year, Spring, and Summer.
We have quoted so largely from the first volume, that
we must endeavour to be somewhat more sparing in our
extracts from the second. We cannot, however, resist the
inclination we feel to transcribe the following rather length-
ened passage, as it lays the axe to the root of a very pre-
vailing and obstinate vulgar error : —

" There is nothing more common than to predict the future state of the
season, from some single appearance in the early part of it ; and yet there
is nothing more unphilosophical or fallacious. An early blossom, an early
bee, or an early swallow, or the early appearance of any other production
of nature, is no evidence whatever of the kind of weather that is to come,
though the belief that it is so is both very general and very obstinate.
The appearance of these things is the effect of the weather, not the cause,
and it is what we may call an external effect ; that is, it does not enter
into the chain of causation. The weather of to-day must always have
some influence upon the weather of to-morrow ; but its effects will not be
altered in the smallest tittle, whether it does or does not call out of the
cranny in which it has been hybernated, some wasp, or some swallow that
was too weak for the autumnal migration. Birds, blossoms, and butter-
flies do not come in expectation of fine weather ; if they did, the early

The British Naturalist, 61

ones would show that they see not far into futurity, for they generally
come forth only to be destroyed. They come in consequence of the good
weather which precedes their appearance, and they know no more of the
future than a stone does. Man knows of to-morrow only as a rational
being ; and were it not that he reasons from experience and analogy, he
would have no ground for saying that the sun of to-day is to set. The
early leaf and the early blossom of this spring may be a consequence of the
fine weather of last autumn, which ripened the wood or forwarded the
bud ; and the early insect may be evidence that the winter has been mild :
but not one of these, or any thing connected with plants or animals, taken
in itself, throws light upon one moment of the future ; and for once to
suppose that it does, is to reverse the order of cause and effect, and put
an end to all philosophy — to all common sense.

" And are we to draw no conclusions from the phenomena of plants and
animals, which have been popular prognostics of the weather from time
immemorial ; not from the face-washing of the cat, or the late roosting of
the rook, which have been signs infallible time out of mind ? No, not a
jot from the conduct of the animals themselves; unless we admit that
cats and crows have got the keeping and command of the weather. These
actions of theirs, and very many (perhaps all) phenomena of plants and
animals are produced by certain existing states of the weather; and it is
for man to apply his observation, and find out by what other states these
are followed. The cat does not wash her face because it is to rain to-
morrow ; that, in the first place, would be " throwing philosophy to the
cats ; '* and, in the next place, it would be doing so to marvellously little
purpose, inasmuch as, if puss were thus informed of the future, she would
only have to wait a day in order to get a complete washing without any
labour or trouble. When the cat performs the operation alluded to, it is
a proof that the present state of the atmosphere affects her skin in a way
that is disagreeable, and the washing is her mode of relief; and, in as far
as the cat is concerned, that is an end to the matter. Man, however, may
take it up, and if he finds that in all cases, or in the great majority of
cases, this happens only before rain, he is warranted in concluding that the
state of the atmosphere which impresses this action upon the cat is also
the state which precedes rain ; and that in the cases where the rain does
not follow, there has been a subsequent atmospheric change, which is also
worthy of his study.

" What it is in this case, and whether connected with the little action
in the fur of the animal by which electricity can be excited, we shall not
enquire; but in the late roosting of the crows [rooks?] the cause is ap-
parent : they feed upon larvae and earth-worms ; these, especially the latter,
come most abroad in the evenings before rain ; and, as most animals
gorge themselves where food is easily found, there is no reason why rooks
should not follow the general law.

" These familiar instances have been noticed in order to point out how
apt we are to miss the lesson that nature would give, and break down the
fabric of philosophy, by giving a purpose and a prescience of the future to
that which cannot reason." (p. 86 — 89.)

Allusion is made again to the same subject at p. 240. : —

" The appearance and first song of birds are, like all other seasonal,
phenomena, part of the history of the year, and of value retrospectively
in telling what has been, though not of the smallest use in telling what is
to be."

There are few greater impediments to the progress of
knowledge and the discovery of truth, than an implicit re-

62 The British Naturalist,

liance on the dicta of high authorities. The idle habit of
too readily assenting to the assertions of others, without in-
vestigation of the subjects themselves, checks at once the
spirit of research and enquiry, and serves oftentimes to con-
firm and propagate a belief in the grossest errors. Men of
eminence as naturalists have maintained, as it were, " ex
cathedra," that swallows retire under water at the approach
of winter, and remain in that element till the ensuing spring *,
that hawks keep truce with lesser birds and poultry during
the season of the cuckoo's singing f, in order that these may
enjoy leisure while building their nests, hatching, and rearing
their broods ; and there are still to be found those, in whose
minds these and similar opinions obtain credence. We have
very lately been gravely told that cuckoos remain dormant
in this country, and are to be met with during the winter
rolled up in moss and leaves in the holes of banks, &c. Our
author, however, is one (and we hope his example may be-
come more general among the fraternity of naturalists) who,
instead of taking things entirely upon trust, chooses to think
and believe for himself: —

"Nullius addictus jurare in verba magistri,"

he prefers looking at nature, and listening to her, with his
own eyes and ears, and forming his opinions accordingly,
rather than putting up with the reports of others, and be-
lieving just what he is told to believe. We find him, accord-*
ingly, a little sceptical as to some points in the natural history
of the cuckoo, which, though anomalous and extraordinary in
the highest degree, are yet universally credited.

" We have no wish," he observes, " to offer any decided opinion on the
singular propensity alleged of the cuckoo, that the female generally deposits
her eggs, one by one, in the nests of small birds, where they are hatched
by their foster-mothers, and fed by them till they thus are fledged; in the
course of which time, they most ungratefully eject their foster-brothers
and sisters from the nest. In the face of the many grave and learned
authorities by which this is stated, it would not become us to give an
opinion ; all that we can positively say is, that, although we have seen
very many young cuckoos in nests, sometimes two, but never more in any
one nest, and generally only one ; and although we have seen them in
nests disproportionally small, and of the same structure as the nests of
smaller birds, we have never met with the egg of the cuckoo along with
that of any other bird, have never scared a little bird from the act of in-

* " Hirundo rustica unaque cum urbica autumno demergitur, vereque
emergit.*' ( Linnesi St/stema Natures.)

f " Paciscuntur inducias cum avibus, imprimis domesticis, quamdiu
cuculus cuculat, ut hae feriantur sub nidificatione, incubatione, pul-
litie." (Id.)

The British Naturalist. 63

ciibation in a cuckoo's nest, and never have detected one little bird in the
act of feeding a cuckoo, either in the nest or out of it. We do not say
that these matters cannot, or even that they do not, happen ; we merely say,
that we have never seen them. When we enter upon study where there
are facts to appeal to, we must really be on our guard against names,
however eminent, or however deservedly they may be so." (p. 131.)

Again : —

" We are not denying the common theory of the cuckoo; but we repeat,
that in the course of a great deal of observation, we have not met with a
single fact which could not be fully and perfectly explained, upon the
hypothesis which the anatomy of the cuckoo, and the analogy of all the
rest of the feathered tribes suggests ; namely, that the cuckoo often takes
possession of the nests of other birds, either after these had quitted them,
or after it had made a meal of the eggs, and then performs all the incuba-
tion and nursing itself." (p. 134.)

We must leave our readers to form their own opinions, or,
we would rather say, to institute their own experiments, on
this curious subject; reminding them, that the only infallible
method of arriving at the truth, and setting the question at
rest, is a close attention to the facts which Nature herself
presents. For " denying without proof, in natural history, is
just as bad as asserting without proof."

Some very interesting remarks on the habits and man-
ners of " the crow tribe" occur at p. 154, &c. ; but they are
too long for extraction, and we must refer our readers to
the work itself: just recording our opinion, as we pass, in
unison with that of the author, that " probably the good that
is done by the whole race more than counterbalances the
evil ; and experience has shown that with the rook this is really
the case."

That most extraordinary, thrilling, vibratory noise (we
scarcely know what else to call it) which is emitted by some
species of woodpecker, especially the smaller or spotted
kinds, and which, familiar as it is to our ears, we yet never
hear without stopping to listen in astonishment, is, with great
probability, we think, considered by the British Naturalist as
the love-note of the bird.* We are led to this opinion by
the circumstance of our almost invariably hearing the sound
near our own residence, for a short period in the spring
(March and April), and never, to the best of our recollec-

* Linnaeus, if we understand his meaning right, seems to intimate that
this noise is made by the woodpecker for the purpose of frightening the
insects, and causing them to come forth from the wood. This, however,
we very much doubt. As the birds destroy timber-boring insects, and
never pierce perfectly sound wood, they may be considered beneficial
animals, and ought not to be unjustly proscribed, as they often are,
on account of the supposed injury they do to timber. " Pici larvas insec-
torum lignum intus rodentium, rostro secante, sono stridulo terrefaciente,
auditu percipiente, lingua acuta hastata intrante extrahunt, injuste pro-
scripti." {Systema Natures.)

6 if The British Naturalist.

tion, at any other season. We have watched the bird during
the operation, at the distance only of a few yards ; but are
still at a loss to understand exactly how the sound is pro-
duced : the strokes of the bird's bill against the tree, rapid
though they be, falling far short, as it appeared to us, of the
almost incredible celerity with which the sounds were re-
peated. Perhaps we do not make ourselves understood :
our meaning is, that if the stroke of the beak be supposed to
be repeated, say four or five hundred times in a minute, the
sound produced appears to require that it should have
been repeated twice or three times as often in the same space :
in a word, the noise which falls upon the ear, seems far more
rapid than the tapping of the beak which is visible to the
eye. May not the horn-tipped tongue of the bird, as well as
its bill, come at the same time in sonorous contact with the
wood, so as to produce at every stroke a double sound ? We
throw out this hint merely in order to invite enquiry on this
curious subject ; and for the same reason, need make no
apology for transcribing our author's remarks, which are
just, and highly descriptive of the phenomenon in question.

" It is not a little singular that the love-note of the woodpecker should
not be a voice, like that of most other birds, but a tapping upon the trunk
of a tree. The muscles of the neck of the bird are so constructed, that it
can repeat the strokes of its bill with a celerity of which it is difficult to
form a notion. They absolutely make one running jar, so that it is impos-
sible to count them. We have often tried with a stop-watch, but could
never ascertain the number for a minute, although we are certain that
it must be many hundreds ; and as, from the sound, the space passed over
must be at least 3 inches backwards and as much forwards, at every stroke,
which, in the rude estimate that we were able to form ( and it was a very
rude one), would make the motion of its beak, one of the most rapid of
animal motions, nearly 200 miles in the hour, yet the bird will continue
tapping away for some considerable time." (p. 293.)

Such, indeed, is the rapidity of the motion, that, were its
powers of wing in proportion to those of its neck, the bird
might almost vie with Puck, and

" put a girdle round about the earth

In forty minutes." Midsummer Nighfs Dream.

There are some unlucky animals in the creation, which,
having once been most unjustly robbed of their good name
and character, are for ever after persecuted by man with un-
relenting rigour, while, in fact, they do him good and faith-
ful service. The hedgehog, we believe, and the toad might
be adduced as instances in point. But the race which we
had more especially in our eye, and which drew the remark,
from us, is that of those amusing little birds the titmice. A
price is frequendy set upon their heads, even in these en-
lightened days ; and incredible sums are sometimes expended

The British Naturalist 65

and entered in the churchwardens' accounts for their de-
struction. So strong, indeed, and universal seems to be the
prejudice against them, that it is next to impossible to per-
suade some people that, so far from being injurious, these
birds are exceedingly useful.* It is with great pleasure,

* The chaffinch is generally considered a most pernicious bird in gar-
dens, and is treated accordingly. We once knew a market-gardener who
used to say that " one chaffinch was well worth a charge of powder and
shot." And it must be confessed, that it does commit considerable depre-
dations among seed-beds, especially those sown with the seed of the cru-
ciform or Tetradynamia class of plants (radishes, turnips, cabbages, &c.),
destroying the seed just as it is sprouting and coming up. In some cases,
perhaps, even this operation may be beneficial, and may serve as a salu-
tary thinning or pruning of the beds ; seeds being very commonly sown too
thick, and few owners having the courage to thin enough, either in the
case of seed-beds, fruit, or any other crop. Be this as it may, however,
the bird at all events destroys an enormous quantity of insects ; and in
this way makes amends for any injury it may do to our gardens in other
respects. This opinion, we ai'e happy to find corroborated on the authority
of Mr. Main (see Vol. IV. p. 417.), who speaks of these birds as frequent-
ing gardens, " where," says he, " they are useful, being, during summer,
entirely insectivorous."

In the early part of last summer our attention was attracted by a chaf-
finch, which, as we sat in our room, we observed to pay repeated visits to
a broom bush (<S'partium ^coparium) immediately in front of our windows.
The bird remamed a considerable time in the bush at each visit, and
appeared exceedingly busy about something, hopping from spray to spray,
searching and rummaging among the branches, and evidently using its bill.
We suspected that the object of plunder was the young soft seed of the broom,
which at the time was much in the same state as peas are in, when fit to
gather. Upon examination, however, we found every pod whole and
untouched ; but the bush was smothered with aphides ; and these, we
ascertained, (not the soft seeds, as we had supposed,) were what attracted
the chaffinch. Whether the bird devoured the aphides itself while in the
bush, or (as we rather suspect) carried them off for the purpose of feeding
a young brood, we cannot say ; but an immense number of aphides must
have been destroyed during its repeated visits.

When any mischief is done in the garden, the orchard, the plantation, or
on the farm, we are very apt too hastily to lay the blame on such animals
as may happen, in pursuance of their usual habits, to be occupied in or
near the spot where the mischief takes place. Frogs and toads have be-
fore now been accused of eating the strawberries, because they are often
met with among the strawberry-beds. We have been told of a gentleman
who charged the rooks with having stripped his oak trees of their leaves.
That the oaks were nearly bare, was beyond dispute ; and he had himself
seen the rooks settling upon them by thousands, and pecking away right
and left with their bills. War was therefore declared by the owner against
the rooks, and good store of ammunition laid in for the occasion. But,
fortunately for the "black population," before hostilities actually com-
menced, the gentleman was convinced by some one who stepped in, and
knew more of natural history than he did himself, that the rooks were not
in fault ; quite the contrary ; they had only flocked to the trees for the
sake of devouring the myriads of cockchafers, and of the larvae of moths,
which were the real depredators. Every country gentleman, every gar-
dener, every farmer, every person, in short, who owns or is occupieil about
Vol. V. — No. 23. f

66 Tlie British Naturalist.

therefore, that we find the British Naturalist standing up itl
defence of their character, and bearing his testimony in their
favour. Common justice as well as humanity compels us
to transfer his remarks on this subject to our own pages.

" The titmice are among the most active and courageous creatures of their
size with which we are acquainted ; and they are also exceeding useful to
man ; useful, indeed, in preventing the whole of the trees from being de-
voured by insects. In spring they are pruners, whisking about and cutting
off opening buds with their strong conical beaks ; and, though they be
often blamed for that part of their economy, it is always an advantage, as
they care riot for the bud itself, but only for the worm that it contains,
which worm would be certain to destroy that bud before it underwent its
transformation, and might, in the course of the season, produce a progeny
that would destroy thousands more. In the later period of the season,
when the eggs of insects cease to be hatched in leaves, and new ones are
deposited in the crevices of the bark, the habits of the titmice change, and
they become tree creepers, running along the stems and branches in all
directions with the greatest ease and rapidity, and clearing the crevices of
every living thing that they can discover. There is no bird that it is more
amusing to watch than a titmouse, when it is thus occupied ; their mo-
tions are so lively, and they can run back undermost with the greatest
ease." (p. 308, 309.)

" In a fruit country, the destruction of the great titmice would be about
as wise and profitable as the extirpation of rooks has proved to be to those
grain farmers, and even grass farmers, that have attempted it." (p. 311.)

Again : —

" As the blue-cap is among the trees at all seasons, the quantity of in-
sects which it destroys, and the number of which it prevents the existence,
must be very great ; and therefore it and its congeners, and indeed all the
scandent birds that feed upon insects, are to be regarded as nature's guar-
dians of the orchard and the forest ; and when we take that in conjunc-
tion with the handsome appearance and lively manners of this little bird,
we find such a union of beauty and utility as makes us forget that those
birds have no tuneful song." (p. 320.)

Their note, however, it may be remarked, though harsh
and unmusical in itself (it has not unaptly been compared
to the filing of a saw), is yet from association agreeable, being
among the very earliest intimations of approaching spring.
For a somewhat similar reason, the scream of the swift,
which is chiefly heard in the most serene summer weather,
is to our ears one of the most joyous and delightful sounds in
nature.

" Sounds inharmonious in themselves and harsh.
Yet heard in scenes where peace for ever reigns.
And only there, please highly for their sake."

Cowper,

any portion of the earth's surface, ought to learn something of natural
history ; for otherwise he runs the risk of persecuting and destroying his
best friends.

The British Naturalist. 61

At p. 32 1 . our author, rather too indiscriminately, we think,
denies " the swallow tribe " the merit of possessing song.
They have, he says, " merely a sound or noise, and some of
them a screech." Ought not the swallow (i/irundo rustica),
among our British species, to have been made an exception ?
We agree with Mr. Main (Vol. IV. p. 413.) in the propriety
of giving to this species a place among the song birds ; though
we admit, with him, that it may rank " rather low on the scale
as a vocalist." Of all the feathered musicians the swallow is
one of the earliest risers, commencing its song even before it
is well light, while night is yet

" At odds with morning, which is which."
Not unfrequently have we been roused at or before daybreak,
and kept awake, by the continuous song of this harbinger of
summer, as it sat twittering on our chimney top,^or perched
on some projecting ledge adjacent to our bed-room window.

We must trespass on our limits, for the sake of making
another extract, which, for its accuracy, and the important
bearing the subject has on natural history, ought not to be
omitted : —

" When man alters the soil and the vegetation, the animals alter along
with it. In consequence of the improvement in agricultm'e and of planting,
many of the birds that are probably with accuracy described as having been
confined to the southern parts of England, are now met with in the north,
and also in the cultivated parts of Scotland. The plover comes in place
of the grouse; the partridge in place of the plover; and where coppices
become abundant, the pheasant, in turn, invades the dominion of the
partridge. The trees and plants, with more succulent leaves, that cul-
tivation introduces instead of the heath, the hard grass, the furze, the
broom, and all those native vegetables of the north that have austere
juices, necessarily bring along with them a vast number of insects. We say
* necessarily;' for wherever the proper food for any of the productions
of nature is to be found, thither will that production come to it, by means
that no one can find out : as, for instance, if roses or cherries are intro-
duced, there are sure to be aphides ; if any of the brassicas, there are sure
to be caterpillars ; and, if there be even an introduction of nettles, their
beautiful butterflies will visit them. When they have increased to a certain
amount, they are sure to bring not only those resident birds that feed them-
selves and their young upon larvae, but also the warblers and other summer
visitants." (p. 332, 3^3.)

These remarks we can verify by similar instances, which
have come within our own experience. Having made some
oak plantations, though only on a small scale, near our resi-
dence, we have occasionally found therein Theclflj quercus
(purple hairstreak butterfly) and Melitae'a Euphrosyn^ (pearl-
bordered fritillary), insects which previously we had never
seen within some miles of the spot. We have seldom planted
the Athenian [?] poplar without finding it taken possession of
by Smerinthus populi (poplar hawk moth), and Ceriira vinula

F 2

68 The British Naturalist.

(puss moth), and sometimes by other less common Phalse'nidae.
The copious growth of broom in our plantations induced for
several seasons the appearance of Phalse^na spartiata (broom
moth, Chesias spartiata Stephens)', a species which we had not
observed before, and which has disappeared again since the
removal of the broom on which the larva feeds. The cater-
pillar of Acherontia A'tropos (death's head sphinx), it is well
known, feeds on the potato ; the very extensive cultivation
of which valuable root in the present day will at once account
for the far more frequent occurrence of this fine insect of late
years than formerly,* The same law, or something analo-
gous to it, holds good also in the vegetable as well as animal
world. Plants sometimes spring up, as it were, spontaneously,
or, at least, nobody knows how, as soon as the soil and
situation are rendered suitable to their growth. The spon-
taneous appearance of ^pipactis latifolia in a new-made
plantation has already been recorded by one of our corre-
spondents in this Magazine (Vol. II. p. 70.), and we have our-
selves observed a similar instance in the case of Orobanche
major, on our premises, in a spot where gorse { U^lex europae^a)
and broom had been introduced and encouraged.

To advert once more to a subject of ornithology, we must
ask, whether our naturalist is not manifestly in error, when
he states (p. 373.) that " the crake (Rallus Crex) has a strong
muscular gizzard f, like poultry and the other birds that live
upon seeds ?" It is never without hesitation that we dare
venture an opinion, on a question of ornithology, at variance
with that of the British Naturalist: sometimes, however,
bonus dormitat Homerus ; and sure we are that the bird in
question is one of those which are sometimes vulgarly, though
not unaptly, termed by cooks " gut-birds ; " i. e. such as are,
and ought to be, dressed woodcock-fashion, without being
drawn, and with the trail in them. We have often partaken
of this most delicate dish at table ; and on such occasions
have, upon examination, never met with " a strong muscular
gizzard like poultry;" but, instead, a small bag or stomach,
like that of the snipe and woodcock, and have found therein

* We are Informed by an able practical entomologist, that some of the
fir-feeding Lepid6ptera (<S'phinx pinastri ? and Geometra piniaria), which
formerly occurred in scarcely any other part of this island save Scotland
or the north of England, have of late years, since the growth of firs has
been more extensively encouraged, been taken, one or both of them, in
great abundance in the more southern parts. See Haworth's Lep. Brit.y
p. 278, 279.

\ A strong muscular gizzard is also attributed (erroneously, as we think)
to the water rail (Rallus aquaticus), which, we may add, is likewise a
" gut-bird." (vol. i. p. 362.)

The British Naturalist, " 6S

little save the remains of insects ; the broken elytra of Cole-
optera, for instance ; and never, unless we greatly mistake,
any thing like the remains of corn : and for this reason,
though it becomes us not absolutely to deny, we yet very
much doubt, the fact of the crake ever feeding upon grain,
" They are, in general, gone," says our author, " before
they can do any injury to the crops." How " gone?" The
corncrake is continually met with by the sportsman in the
earlier season of partridge-shooting ; and once we remember
to have seen one drop to our own gun in the beginning of
November.

The wood-cuts which illustrate these volumes, though by
no means of the first quality, call, nevertheless, for a few
remarks. Some of them, and some of the best too, are
evidently copied from Bewick. We do not Hke them the
less on that account : but the spirit of the originals has sadly
evaporated in the copies. What we have most to complain
of is, that the subjects have not been very judiciously chosen :
there are the heron, the kite, the raven, the magpie, the jay,
and the jackdaw, with many others, equally familiar to all. It
would have been better to have illustrated by figures the less
known, rather than the commonest species. If, for example,
instead of a portrait of the lark, a bird perfectly well known to
every body, the author had presented us with a good delinea-
tion of the several kinds of pipits (of which, we are told, there
are, at least, three species found in Britain, and these, as it
seems, not always clearly understood, but involved in some
confusion), we should have felt ourselves under far greater
obligations to him. Or, again, we would most willingly have
dispensed with all the cuts in the work, to have had in their
place accurate figures of those charming, but perplexing
tribes, the whitethroats, pettychaps, and willow wrens. The
figure of ASphino; (Acher6ntia) A'tropo5 we could have wished
had been either a little larger or a little less, and we do not
much care which. In the one case it would have been quite
palpable that the insect was represented on a diminished
scale ; in the other, of its natural size. As it is, it scarcely
looks like either one thing or the other, and may mislead the
less informed. Of the ornithological frontispiece in the
second volume we can say nothing in praise. The birds
there represented are stiff and formal in the last degree ;
and the cuts, having been made, we suspect, from stuffed spe-
cimens, are totally devoid of life and character. We should
hardly have recognised the several species, had not their
names been underwritten. Then there is in the titlepage
opposite a most rural vignette (the artist ruined a useful block

F 3

70 Tht British Nahiralist.

of boxwood when he cut it), which, together with certain
others of like manufacture, we do hope the author will omit
in the next edition, and give us, by way of make-weight, in
the room of them, that most necessary adjunct to every thing
in the shape of a book, an index ; the absence of which we
have sorely felt. Our readers will perceive that we think
but meanly of the ornamental parts of the British Naturalist,
It is but justice to add, however, that the cut of" Rook's Re-
tribution" is neat, tasteful, and characteristic. We cannot
help suspecting that this also may be a copy, though we do
not immediately recollect to have ever seen the original.

One word more of complaint, and we have done. Of our
author's style no unfavourable judgment will have been formed
from the examples we have given. Sometimes he indulges
in tediously long-winded sentences, which put us absolutely out
of breath before we can get to the end of tliem ; and even then,
perhaps, their meaning is scarcely intelligible without a second
perusal. We refer, as an instance in point, to the opening
paragraph of part iii. (Summer) in vol. ii. The passage itself
is too long to extract, nor is it worth the trouble. Sometimes
we have to encounter a sentence equally obscure, in a different
way; e. g.

" Thus, though a careful examination of those places, not with a view
to ascertain how the strata of the earth were originally made (of which, as
we have nothing very analogous to it going on, we can have very imperfect
notions), but, as to what part in its present form may depend upon causes
that we can understand, can give information, it will not give us dates."
(vol. ii. p. 287.)

We do not like such expressions as " too singular for
being passed over," and " rather harsh and hard for being
eaten." (vol. i. p. 261. 304.) Sometimes, again, we meet
with an occasional Scotticism (our author, we presume, is a
Scotchman), such as " would " for " should," &c. (vol. ii.
p. 225.) ; and, now and then, with an example of false con-
cord : —

" They do not attack any vegetable substance in those parts, except
the gum upon a wild cherry, or berries, and the former «re not very
numerous, and the bilberry^ the most abundant of the latter, are not
quite to their taste." Again : " Their slender bills^ slightly awl-shaped,
and having the top of the upper mandible a little curved downward at the
tip, does not adapt them for that operation." (vol. ii. p. 299. 323.)

Of incomplete sentences, or rather series of w^ords in-
trenched between two full stops, which yet contain no propo-
sition, neither affirming nor denying any thing, many instances
might be pointed out ; let one, however, suffice : —

" As it does not frequent gardens at the time when the cultivated cher-

Northumherland Nat, Hist, Society's Transactions, 7 1

ries are in crop, unless they be in the immediate neighbourhood of a wood,
in which it can shelter." (vol. ii. p. 223.)

What the writer means in the latter part of the following
sentence, we are utterly at a loss even to conjecture : —

" The sand- marten (jH'irundo riparia) is the species most frequently met
with in such localities, as it nestles in holes of the steep banks, generally
in colonies at one place, whichsoever the stream hath upwards and down-
wards:' * (vol. ii. p. 381.)

Errors and imperfections, like those above noticed, occur,
we are sorry to observe, far more frequently in the latter part
of the second volume, which, indeed, exhibits indisputable
proofs of hasty composition, and most unpardonable negli-
gence. On the whole, though we cannot entirely acquit the
author of the sin of book- making, we are ready to acknow-
ledge that he has contrived to make a very pleasant and a
very useful book. With the omissions, alterations, and cor-
rections at which we have hinted, with a view to a future
edition, we venture to recommend the work to the favourable
notice of our readers ; many of whom, we doubt not, will
derive as much pleasure and information from its perusal as,
we are bound to say, we have done ourselves.

A. R. Y.

Art. II. Transactions of the Natural History Society oj' Nor thum-
berlandf Durham, and Newcastle upon Tyne. Vol. I., and Part I.
of Vol. II. 4to. Newcastle, 1831.

The Society whose Transactions are before us was esta-
blished little more than two years ago, and it has already
published one large volume, and a considerable portion of a
second. The fact affords the best possible evidence of the
zeal of its members ; and the contents are very tolerable
specimens of their talent and aptitude for observation. The
work is handsomely printed in quarto ; which, we think, is to
be regretted, for Transactions of provincial societies can never
be too cheap. Their principal use and object is to diffuse an
accurate knowledge of a particular district among the bulk of

* The following also is very obscure, and cost us some trouble to under-
stand, if, indeed, we even now comprehend the author's meaning : — " The
eggs of birds, when properly described, are very useful for distinguishing
the species, ' as in the same one they often differ less in colour than the
birds.' " (vol. ii. p. 367.) We wish it to be understood that we have been
the more particular in pointing out individual errors and imperfections, in
the hope that they may be corrected in a second edition of the book,
which, if we do not mistake, will, in due time, be called for.

F 'i

72 Northumberland Nat Hist. Society's Transactions,

its inhabitants, and to instil and cherish a taste for natural
science among them ; and it seems very obvious that this end
can be accomplished only very partially, unless the papers
are printed in a form which may admit of their being sold at
a price that will at least not necessarily narrow their circula-
tion. We are anxious to press this upon the attention of
directors of provincial societies iln general ; for while we enter-
tain high notions of the utility of such institutions, we are also
fully convinced that their usefulness in one respect is marred
and nullified by the prevalent practice of making their pub-
lications a sealed book to all, save to their own members, or
to the rich, few of whom care for these things. How much
the Linnean Society has erred in this respect is notorious, and
is a matter of lamentation to many who know how much of
valuable matter is locked up in their Transactions ; and we
regret that the Newcastle Society follows such a bad example.

Of the papers in zoology, we would particularise Mr. Win-
gate's notice of C5'gnus Bewick?/, a new species of swan,
which he was the first to distinguish from the common wild
swan ; we say the first, because some have attempted to rob
him of this merit, and, in spite of fact and dates, to assign it
to Mr. Yarrell. Mr. Selby has well illustrated this Cygnus
in the same volume, which contains also, from the pen of this
celebrated ornithologist, a notice of Cypselus alpinus, and
ikfergus cucuUatus as natives or visiters of Britain; and a
complete catalogue of the birds hitherto met with in the
counties of Northumberland and Durham. Mr. Alder's paper
on the land and freshwater testaceous Mollusca found in the
vicinity of Newcastle is excellent, and includes the descrip-
tions of two or three new species. A notice of Falco ^pivorus,
by the Hon. H. T. Liddell ; of ^alse'na 56ops, by Dr. John-
ston ; and some remarks on the curious mechanical feats of a
small spider, by the Rev. Mr. Turner, complete the list of
zoological papers.

In botany Mr. Winch is the only contributor. In the first
volume, this well-known botanist gives some interesting re-
marks on the distribution of the indigenous plants of North-
umberland and Durham, as connected with the geological
structure of those counties; and a Flora, as a catalogue
perhaps the most perfect which has been yet published in this
country, of the same district, occupies what has been pub-
lished of the second volume.

The papers illustrative of the geology of the counties of
Northumberland and Durham are numerous, and it may be
useful to some of our readers to have a list of them : — 1. No-
tice of a Whin Dyke in the Fenham Division of Benwell

Works 071 Natural History,

Colliery, by Mr. Buddie, who gives likewise an account of
the explosion which took place in Jarrow Colliery, on the
3d of August, 1830; and a Synopsis of the several Seams of
Coal in the Newcastle District. 2. Notice on the effects of a
Basaltic Dyke, at Butterknowle Colliery, by Mr. Michael
Forster. 3. Notice of a Bed of Whin, at Stanhope, in Wear-
dale, by W. C. Trevelyan, Esq. 4. Notes on the New Red
Sandstone of Durham, below the Magnesian Limestone, by
Mr. Hutton. 5. Observations on the Geology of Ratcheugh
Creg, near Alnwick, by Mr. Francis Forster ; and, by the
same individual. Observations on the South Welsh Coal
Basin. 6. On the discovery of Hazel Nuts, in working a
lead ore vein in the manor of Alston Moor, by Mr. Pattinson.
7. Remarks on the Geology of the Banks of the Tweed, by
Mr. Winch. 8. Description of a group of Dykes, termed
Ryders, discovered in the Whitehaven Colliery, by Mr. Peile.
9. Notice of the Edge Seams of Mid-Lothian, with a descrip-
tion of Gilmerton Colliery, by Mr. Dunn ; and an extract
relative to the explosion at Harraton Colliery, in the year
1808, by the same. 10. On the Red Sandstones of Berwick-
shire, by H. Witham, Esq., who communicates also a descrip-
tion of a Fossil Tree discovered in the quarry of Craigleith,
near Edinburgh. 1 1. Account of some Fossil Stems of Trees
found penetrating through the strata above the High Main
Coal, at Killingworth Colliery, at a depth of forty-eight
fathoms, by Mr. Wood ; who has another paper on the
geology of a part of Northumberland and Cumberland.

There is another paper, a Sketch of the Life and Works
of the late Thomas Bewick, by Mr. G. C. Atkinson, which
we have read with pleasure and interest ; and no one, we
presume, will question the propriety of its insertion in a
volume proceeding from the Natural History Society of New-
castle. N.

Art. TII. Catalogue of Works on Natural History, lately published,
with some Notice of those considered the most interesting to British
Naturalists,

Britain.

Anon. [Understood to be by Professor Bennie] : Insect Miscellanies.
12mo. London, Charles Knight, 1831. Forming another Volume of
the Library of Entertaining Knowledge, and completing the subject of
Insects.

A most interesting volume, rich in amusing and instructive information,
and adorned with very numerous wood-cuts. The compiler has been very
prompt in availing himself of all that has been published up to the hour

7i Don^s comjylete Sj/ste?n of Botany and Gardening,

of putting his book to press; even the essence of our correspondent Mr.
Parson's communication on the Visual Organs of Insects {Mag. Nat,
Hist, vol.iv. p. 124. 220. 363.) is not omitted.-— J. D,

Sir, At p. 49. of Insect MiscellaiiieSy Mr. Rennie has expressed great
doubt of the truth of Mr. Ruber's declaration, that the humble bee, not
being able easily to obtain access to the honey reservoir of many flowers,
"drills an aperture at the base of the tube, through which it insinuates its
sucker." To obviate Mr. Rennie's scepticism, I beg to say, I have myself
seen both the humble and the hive bee gnaw a hole at the base of the
flower of the greater snapdragon (/Antirrhinum majus), and the common
white jasmine (e/asminum officinale), for the purpose of obtaining the
honey, and after repeated observation I have never been able to see them
enter the flowers of the greater snapdragon at the mouth, as expressed
by the figure in p. 49. [For other corollas perforated by bees, see p. 86.]
I am. Sir, &c. — Charles C. Babington, B.A. F.L.S, St. John's College,
Cambridge, Oct, 18. 1831.

Douy George, F.L.S. : A general System of Gardening and Botany; con-
taining a complete Enumeration of all Plants hitherto known ; with
their Generic and Specific Characters, Places of Growth, Time of
Flowering, Mode of Culture, and their Uses in Medicine and Domestic
Economy. Preceded by Introductions to the Linnsean and Natural
Systems, and a Glossary of the Terms used. Founded upon Miller's
Gardener's Dictionary, and arranged according to the Natural System.
In 4 vols. Vol. I. 4to. London, 1831. 3/. 12*.

Deserves notice in this Magazine as a work on botany, which it is more
properly than a work on gardening. Its object is to describe in the order
of the natural system all the plants at present known in the world ; to
notice whatever properties useful to the purposes of life any species or
genus may possess ; and to supply directions under every family for its
successful culture and propagation.

The appearance of this book forms an epoch in the progress of botanical
knowledge in Britain ; for it cannot fail most sensibly to impel, and promote
that knowledge among us ; and would have produced this effect still more
extensively could it have been sold cheaper. The work is one which has
been long wanted in Britain. So many plants, and specimens of plants,
have been gathered together from all parts of the world about us, that at
every turn we are reminded of our ignorance, and have our wishes excited
to know something about these lovely beings. To gratify these wishes has
been, however, to a great extent impracticable, save to those rich enough to
buy, and learned enough to read, the hundreds of detached and depart-
mental volumes, in which these plants were respectively treated of. The
expense of very many of_these books, and the difficulty of reading them,
are both dispensed with by a comprehensive work like the present, and this
work written in English. To the botanist who is already rich in books and
botanical knowledge it will be very valuable ; for the introduction informs
us, that, " when finished, it will be found to be the most complete system of
plants yet published ; comprehending, besides all the genera and species
which have been published up to the present time, descriptions of numerous
plants never before published, and derived chiefly from the Lambertian
Herbarium. The characters of all the genera and species are derived either
from the plants themselves, or from the original authorities where authentic
specimens could not be procured." To those already initiated in system-
atic botany, but who only understand the English language, the work will
be inestimably valuable; and for those who wish now to take up the study,
brief introductions to the Linnaean and natural systems, and a copious
glossary, are given : it is, however, not the most eligible of works for real
novices in botany. — J. D.

Norih American Books* TS

Johnston, George, M.D. &c.: A Flora of Berwick upon Tweed. 8vo, 340
pages with plates. Volume the Second, containing the Cryptogamous
Plants. Edinburgh, Carfrae and Son; London, Longman and Co. 1831.
7s. 6d.

In Vol. IL p. 234. the first volume of this work is reviewed, and we
purpose to submit this second volume to the same reviewer. In the in-
terim, we hesitate not to pronounce it an able production, characterised by
a high and admirable degree of originality, and presenting facts and views
of much interest to universal botany. — J. D.

Hack, Maria: Geological Sketches, and Glimpses of the Ancient Earth.
12mo, 400 pages and several plates. London, Harvey and Darton, 1832.
Bound in cloth, 9*.

An amusing and instructive volume, and an eligible present to youth.
Its scope and calibre will best appear in the authoress's own words : — " A
traveller passing through a picturesque country may add to his enjoyment
by delineating the cottage, the rock, or the tree, which happens to please
his fancy, without venturing to portray an entire landscape ; and thus,
while reading the works of eminent geological writers, amused by ingenious
theories, and interested by their application to well authenticated facts, I
have sought to perpetuate my own pleasure, and also to contribute some-
thing towards the entertainment of others, by attempting a series of
sketches, which, without pretending to the completeness of a system, may
afford some glimpses of the structure of the earth. . . . This little volume
is not designed exclusively for young persons, but for all to whom the sub-
ject is new, and who have not inclination or opportunity for studying it
scientifically. The references will show that the works of those who are
considered the best authorities have furnished the materials. As to the
mode of arranging them, the adoption of colloquial intercourse seems to
afford the greatest freedom and variety of illustration."

North America.

Transactio72s of the Literary and Historical Society ofQjuehec, founded Jan. 6.
1824. Vol. L 8vo, pp. 833. Quebec, 1829.

This institution owes its origin to the Earl of Dalhousie, late governor-
general of Canada ; and although its title does not seem to have been very
happily chosen, since only one of the papers communicated to the Society
is on a literary or historical subject, it has called forth the contributions of
another class, the readers and students of the great book of nature, which
is opened in this country at one of its most curious and ample pages.
These Transactions are almost entirely on geological and botanical subjects,
with a good paper " On the recent Shells which characterise Quebec and
its environs." We owe to our Canadian friends a debt of gratitude for
their zeal in the cause of science, and have no doubt that their labours
will be duly appreciated and acknowledged by those in the parent country
who are pursuing kindred subjects. We regret that our limits do not per-
mit us to analyse the several papers, and that we are prevented from giving
extracts from the curious one, entitled, " A Journey across the Continent,
by an Indian Chief." The volume, however, is to be found in most of our
scientific libraries, to which it has been transmitted by the liberality of the
Quebec Society. -

A Monthly Journal of Geology and Natural Science was commenced at
Philadelphia, in July last, conducted by G. W. Featherstonehaugh, Esq.
F.G.S. &c.
Most heartily do we wish prosperity to this transatlantic contemporary.

76 luiterary Notice,

Harris^ Thaddeus Mason^ D.D. : Natural History of the Bible.

I beg leave to call the attention of your readers to this interesting work,
by the learned Thaddeus Mason Harris, D.D., of Dorchester, near Boston,
Massachusetts. Boston, 1820. The first edition was published in the
year 1793. The second is in 8vo, pp. 479. I am sure that it will give
great satisfaction to every one who studies it. The biblical student, espe-
cially, will be delighted with it. Few works exhibit greater proofs of learn-
ing and research. — J. M. Philadelphiay August y 1830.

Bafinesque^ C. S., A.M. &c. : Precis des Decouvertes Somiologiques,
ou Zoologiques et Botaniques. Palerme, aux depens de I'Auteur,
1814.

The name of Rafinesque is by no means unfamiliar to naturalists ; and
this little book testifies that it ought not to be. It makes known 190
species of animals and plants that this author had, as early as 1814, dis-
covered and described. These species, the names he has applied to them,
and short characteristic descriptions of them, are the contents of this
hook.— J. D.

Anon. : Popular Lectures on the vertebrated Animals of the British Islands,
with an Appendix, containing a Sketch of Extinct Animals. 8vo,
96 pages. Birmingham, Wrightson, 1831.

Contains much delightful matter, and will be farther noticed hereafter.

Rafinesque, C. S., A.M. &c., Professor of Botany, Natural History, &c.,
Philadelphia: Principes Fondamentaux de Somiologie; ou, les Loix
de la Nomenclature et de la Classification des Corps organises. 8vo. Pa-
lerme, aux depens de I'Auteur, 1814.

This work, although printed in Italy, was received from Philadelphia,
where Professor Rafinesque now resides. The " Laws " are necessarily
familiar to all professed naturalists ; but we have never before met with so
welcome a synoptical digest of them, and we may some day present a
selection of them for the information of our juvenile readers. Somiology
is designed to express the science of organised bodies in one word, and
seems derived from soma, a body, and logos, a discourse ; and, without it, two
must be used, as Zoology and Phytology or Botany. Professor Ra-
finesque's "Laws," or rules, are 186 in number; and to these are subjoined
his divisions and subdivisions of Somiology, with a definition of each. — J.D,

Rafinesque, C. S., A.M. &c. : Medical Flora, or Manual of the Medical
Botany of the United States of North America. 2 vols. 8vo, with
100 wood-cuts. Atkinson and Alexander, Philadelphia, 1828.

These two volumes include above 500 closely printed pages, from which
we may eventually select some extracts useful to our readers. It
contains considerable contributions to critical and technical botany, and
which should by no means escape appropriation by botanic systemato-
logists. The wood-cuts are not equal to those of Britain, nor are they
improved by being printed in green. — J. D.

Art. III. Literary Notice,

Mr. Samouelle's new work. The Entomological Cabinet,is in the press,
and the first number will soon make its appearance.

77

COLLECTANEA.

Art. I. Zoology.

Hares talcing the Water. — Sir, Some of your correspondents geem to
doubt if hares ever take the water voluntarily. I can affirm that I have
frequently seen them do so when I have been fishing. Two years ago,
whilst standing on the banks of the Ure, in Wensleydale, I remember seeing
a hare come to just opposite me, and sit for five minutes, looking across
the river : at length he quietly sprang into the water, and swam towards
me. I remained motionless, and he came out not five yards from me, and
cantered off to the other end of a large field, where he joined another hare
(I suspect a female). They there gamboled together for above half an
hour. He then returned, took the water again about fifty yards fi-om me,
and landed on the other side. On this occasion, I am convinced the all-
powerful passion of love was the motive which induced the hare to take
the water ; and, as on other occasions I could never discover any symptoms
of fear, I conclude that has generally been the occasion of their doing so.
The hares I have seen swim high out of the water, and boldly, as if accus-
tomed to it. Yours, &c. — Thomas Thompson, Hully Aug. 4. 183L'

Some Account of the Stoat. — The stoat (ikfustela erminea) has much
the same habits as the weasel ; and, though more timid, is equally mis-
chievous among poultry and their eggs. It is more abundant than the
weasel, probably in consequence of its not being able to enter the holes of
the reptiles by which it is killed. The stoat does not change its colour
here, as in the northern parts of the world, by which its fur becomes so
valuable an article of commerce, though it has been observed that its
breast and throat are whiter in winter than in the summer months. — J, M.
Jan. 23. 1831.

As a balancing good to the evil of the stoat's destroying poultry, &c., it
appears also to destroy the water rat. See Vol. III. p. 145. — J. D.

Some Account of the Weasel. — Jan. 23. The foot-marks of the weasel
(jliiistela vulgaris) are now visible on the snow by hedge sides. It lives in
holes (usually made at first by the mole) under the roots of trees and
hedges, and preys on mice, small birds, &c., and consequently destroys or
drives from the neighbourhood of its residence all of these tribes within its
reach : of course it must prowl about by night for supplies. It is a bold
audacious little animal, and often commits depredations on the chicklings
of the poultry-yard. This makes the farmer its enemy, though it is some-
times his friend, when it happens to choose a corn-rick for its domicile, as
it drives thence all other vermin. For the sake of the poultry, however,
its haunts should be known, and there is no readier way than tracing it
home in the snow. At daylight on mornings weasels may be seen hurry-
ing home with a mouse or bird in their mouth ; and if intercepted, will
retire into a hedge, lay down their load, return and peep out, till they think
they can proceed in safety. Their young often fall a prey to the viper
(Coluber jBerus), when they meet in their holes. Cats kill the weasel, but

78 Zoologij.

seldom eat tliem, unless pressed by hunger. In the north this animal is
called the foumart, and sometimes whitret, as if white rat. — J. M.

The weasel's tenacious reluctance to relinquish its young and its prey is
noticed by <Sc61opax rusticola in his article " On the Habits of the Weasel,"
Vol.1 V. p. 337.; and some highly interesting particulars on the habits of this
animal are given by W. L., Vol. III. p. 234. — J, D.

The Mole shows Changes of Weather ^ Sfc. — Jan. 20. Mole (Talpa euro-
pae^a) works. It is remarkable that this animal sometimes gives notice of
a change of weather. The temperature or dryness of the air governs its
motions as to the depth at which it lives or works. This is partly from its
inability to bear cold or thirst, but chiefly from the necessity it is under of
following its natural food, the earthworm (Zumbricus terrestris), which
always descends as the cold or drought increases. In frosty weather, both
worms and moles are deeper in the ground than at other times, and both
seem to be sensible of an approaching change to warmer weather before
there are any perceptible signs of it in the atmosphere. When it is ob-
served, therefore, that moles are casting hills through openings in the frozen
turf, or through a thin covering of snow, a change to open weather may be
shortly expected.

The cause of this appears to be as follows : — The natural heat of the
earth being for a time pent in by the frozen surface, accumulates below it ;
first incites to action the animals, thaws the frozen surface, and at length
escapes into the air, which it warms and softens; and if not counter-
balanced by a greater degree of cold in the atmosphere, brings about a
change. Changes from frosty to mild weather, caused by the ascent of
heat from the earth, are often' so evident, that the circumstance needs no
confirmation. Stronger proof, if proof were necessary, cannot be given than
the common appearance of frost or snow remaining longer upon ground
having a stratum of rock beneath, than upon that where there is none. Old
foundations of buildings, which have not been dug out, are easily traced by
the same appearance ; and any subterraneous solid body, as large stones,
drains, planks, or pieces of timber, may be discovered in the same way ;
and even a plank laid across a ditch at such times will remain covered
with snow for many hours after the snow on the ground is all melted and
gone.

This sufficiently accounts for the activity of the mole before a change of
weather, and deserves to be noted by the meteorologist among his other
prognostics of the weather.

The mole, though generally a despised and persecuted animal, is never-
theless useful in some degree to the husbandman, in being the natural
drainer of his land, and destroyer of worms. To other inferior animals he
is a sapper and miner, forming for them their safe retreats and well-secured
dormitories. — J. ilf. Jan. 20. 1831.

Some very interesting remarks on the physiology and habits of the mole
will be found in our Vol. II. p. 420, 421.

Do moles swim of choice ? I have known them prevail in an allotment
of land which was every where bounded by streams, except at the gateway
by which access was obtained. It is far more likely that the moles swam
to the allotment, than distinguished the gateway. — J. D.

Uses of the Mole. — Agronome remarks. Vol. IV. p. 557., " Whatever
James Hogg may say in favour of moles, I am of opinion that they are
noxious vermin, and ought to be extirpated the kingdom." As some of
our readers may not be aware how much James Hogg has said on the sub-
ject, we present an extract : — " The most unnatural of all persecutions
that ever was raised in a country is that against the mole, that innocent
and blessed little pioneer who enriches our pastures annually with the first
top-dressing, dug with great pains and labour from the fattest of the soil
beneath. The advantages of this top-dressing are so apparent and so

Zoology* 79

manifest to the eye of every unprejudiced person, that it is really amazing
how our countrymen should have persisted, now nearly half a century, in
the most manly and valiant endeavours to exterminate the moles from the
face of the earth. If a hundred men and horses were employed on a com-
mon-sized pasture farm, say of from 1500 to 2000 acres, in raising and con-
veying manure for a top-dressing of that farm, they would not do it so effec-
tually, so neatly, or so equally, as the natural number of moles on that farm
would do of themselves." {Quaiierly Journal of Agriculture.^

Notes on the Water Shrew. — Ja7i. 28. Water shrew (6'6rex fodiens)
appears. This is a curious little animal, and not often seen, except by
those acquainted with its habits. It resembles the common shrew, but is
twice the size ; the upper part of the body black ; beneath, dirty white ;
the fur like that of a mole. Water shrews burrow and live on the banks
of rivulets and spring-water ditches, and appear to collect their food, which
probably consists of the larvae of some of the ephemeral flies, from among
the loose mud. If cautiously watched, they being naturally shy, they may
be seen crouching at the mouths of their holes, looking intently into the
water J and should a shoal of minnows (Cjprinus Phoxinus) or sticklebacks
(Gasterosteus aculeatus) pass near, the shrew plunges amongst them, but
seldom succeeds in making a capture ; and, returning to his station, looks
out for another chance. They dive with much adroitness, and can remain
under water for the space of a minute. Their fur repels the water from
their bodies, as while they are submerged they appear to be almost white.
When pursued by the weasel, they drop into the water, and pass to the
opposite side. — J. M. Jan. 28. 'l828.

The date of this communication, which we received almost as soon as
written, shows that we should have published it anteriorly to Mr. Dovas-
ton's esteemed article on the same subject, dated May 6. 1829, published
in our Vol. II. p. 219. That communication has excited contributions to
the more complete history of this interesting animal at p. 399. and 483. of
Vol. II., and p. 90. 188. 236. and 471. of Vol. III.; and the information
contained in the present account will be found confirmatory and additional
to that contained in the previous ones. W. W.'s (of Liverpool) notice.
Vol. III. p. 471., of the differences in character which he observed in the
captured specimens he examined, from the specimens described by Mr. Dovas-
ton, Vol. II. p. 221., induce us to refer W. W. to Mr. Ainsworth's remarks
in Vol. II. p. 483., which go to prove that there are two British species of
water shrew. — J. D.

Notes on the Common Shrew. — April 2. The common shrew (^Sbve^
Jraneus) appears. The shrew is well known, especially to mowers and
reapers. Their economy is much like that of the field mouse (ikfus sylva-
ticus). It is observable, that, if two are seen together, they are almost
always quarrelling. Whether the contest be amatory or malicious is un-
certain ; but the sufferer's cry is the most piercingly acute of any sound
with which the ear can be assailed. Cats kill, but seldom eat, the shrew.—
J. M. April 2. 1831.

The last sentence asserts a fact exceedingly familiar to the inhabitants of
the fens of Cambridgeshire, but where the name of shrew is scarcely known.
Its name there is mog-mouse ; almost without question, a corruption of
bog mouse. W. L. (Vol. III. p. 236.) says, " the cat kills, but does not
eat, the common shrew." — J. D.

A rare Variety of the Goose Family. — Sir, The severity of the season
[winter of 1829-30] having brought with it the usual accompaniment of
numerous flocks of wild fowl, it has happened, as is generally the case,
that some rare specimens of the yi^nas tribe have found their way from far
distant lands, to seek protection for a while on our shores. Amongst
others, a beautiful variety of the goose family has been shot in the neigh-

80 Zoology,

bourhood of Frampton on Severn. Not having any work of reference

where I am now writing, I cannot exactly say whether I am 'correct in. its

g^^^ V 33 * name (the *Cape goose). En-.

^^Hp^ ^^ . . closed is a small,* but tolerably

'^hI ^^fti^K accurate, ske'tcji ( fig. 33. )j

Jn ^Hj^H^ ^^ roughly made by. me, since the

■^^^ sB^t^^^^ "^A \ ^^^^ ^^^ heen set up. This, with

^^^^^^^^^^^^■^^^^^^^ j\ the description,- will enable your

^^^|^^^H||^^^^^^^^^^^y readers to form a tolerable no-

hjiL^|^9|^^^^^^^^^^^^^^<(/-^ tion of this very handsome bird.

^^H^^^^^l^^^^^^^^^^^^ The head is ash colour, mixed

^r^-^^^m^^^^^^^^^^^H^^^^!^ with chestnut ; the patch sur-

'^^m^^mi^^^ ^^S^B^\m mlil/m rounding the eye bright chest-

^'^^^^^^^^mB^^^^SS^/lMPy ""^ * ^^^ ^^ck ash colour, in-

^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^Jtv// clining to chestnut; bill small,

Ji^^^^^~^^^^^^^^r~^"^'^^7^ rather high in the middle-; the

. *^^^^^^^^^^^^»^^^*;^^ nostrils ^nd the edges of the bill

^^'^=*^s^=-;,,-_^;.;^..^:j^P^>^ black. Round the lower part of

the neck is a bright chestnut ring j breast ferruginous, speckled with black,
and on the lower part of the breast is a large patch of bright chestnut. Sca-
pulars ash colour, on a light chestnut ground, pencilled with black. Pri-
maries glossy black. Bastard wing white, divided by a line of glossy green
feathers, the rest of the wing dark chestnut, slightly pencilled with black.
Belly dusky, and speckled vent, ferruginous rump, and tail black. Legs
and feet red, toes black. Length from top of the beak to the end of the
tail 2 ft. 4 in. From the bird's being set up, as drawn, I had no opportunity
of measuring the breadth. Jt was pursued for many days before it was
shot. Yours, &c. — Walter Henry Hill. January 13. 1830.

The Kentish Plover not a variety of the Ring Plover y or Dulwillyy as it is
asserted to be in Rennie*s Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary, — Sir, Hav-
ing taken up the second edition of Montagues Ornithological Dictionary^
edited by James Rennie, A.M. A.L.S. &c., in hope of finding some account
of the Kentish plover, I found it stated to be a " variety of the king-
plover," or dulwilly [Charadrius hiaticula hinn?^. Now, as, in the same
work, it is justly affirmed, " that it is by observation alone that science can
be enriched, while a single fact is frequently sufficient to demolish a
system ; " and as I only wish to accomplish the first part of this quotation ;
I do not conceive I shall incur the charge of presumption if, in opposition
to Montagu's opinion, strengthened as it is by that of Mr. Rennie, I lay
before you my reasons for thinking the Kentish plover to be a distinct
species : hoping that, through your Magazine, either my error, or that of
the ornithologists who doubt the Kentish plover's being a species, may be
corrected. In May, 1830, I first met with these birds, in Pegwell Bay,
and on the Sandwich Plats, in Kent. They were then in pairs, and pro-
bably bred in the banks of shells which abound there. On examining a
bird shot on the 25th of May, 1 found it to be a male, according exactly
with Latham's description of the bird given in Bewick, except in size ; the
following being the measurement : — Length from the point of the bill to
the tip of the tail, 6^ in. ; breadth, 13i in. Latham says it is of the same
size as the ring plover ; now the latter bird measures nearly 1\ in. in
length, and 17 in. in breadth; making a difference between the two of
nearly an inch in length, and 3^ in. in breadth. The bill of the Kentish
plover is more slender than that of the ring plover, and measures five
eighths of an inch. The female differs from the male, in having no black
or rufous colour in her plumage ; her markings are otherwise the same as
in the male bird. Although I cannot say that the Kentish plovers did not
mix in the flocks of ring plovers and dunlins in feeding ; yet I never saw
them join them in the air. Indeed they seldom took wing ; but, on being

Zoologi/. " St

approached, generally ran, uttering a shrill cry, towards the nearest bank of
shingle or sjiell, where, being always difficult to be seen, they sometimes
rendered then^selves still more so by crouching down. I obtained in all
seven specitnens, thj'ee males, and" four females; amongst which there was
no material difference. I conceive these birds have hitherto, by some orni-
, thologists, been confounded with those varieties of the ring plover which
are occasionally met with wanting the gorget, &c. ; but they appear to me
to be perfectly distinct ; the birds I met with being altogether of a lighter
form. I remember observing this difference particularly on seeing a Kentish
plover and a ring plover placed in the same case, as a pair of the latter
species, in the shop of a noted preserver of specimens of natural history,
in London. Hoping that this may lead to some further elucidation, I am.
Sir, yours, &c. — George Clayton. Rochester, September 19. 1831.

Identity of the Green Sandpiper and the Wood Sandpiper. — Sir, The
question whether the green and wood sandpipers are the same species
seems, from Mr. Rennie's edition of Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary,
to be undecided; but, as a specimen has just come under my notice which
appears to me to clear up this difficulty, I shall offer no apology for sending
you a description of it. The length from the bill to the tail is 10 in. ; to
the end of the toes, llfin.; breadth, 17in. ; length from the knee to the
toe, 2|in.; thigh joint to the toe, 5iin. The bill measures l|in. from the
corner of the mouth, and is very slender ; the upper mandible, which is
black, and slightly curved at the point, is a little longer than the lower
one, which is a dark green at the base, and black at the point ; a dark
streak extends from the base of the upper mandible to the corner of the
eye, and above it is a patch of dirty white, intermixed, with minute dusky
spots ; a small circle of dirty white surrounds the eyes : the chin is white ;
the cheeks, throat, and forepart of the neck white, spotted with dusky,
with which colour a few laminae at the end of each feather are marked their
whole length ; the breast has a dappled stripe, of the same colour as the
throat running down the middle of it ; with this exception, it is white, as
are also the belly, vent, and under tail coverts.

The crown of the head and hinder part of the neck are a dingy brown,
which, on the neck, has a shade of ash colour ; the bend of the wing and
lesser wing coverts are brownish black; the whole upper part of the
plumage is of a glossy brownish green, which is spotted on the middle wing
coverts with minute white spots, that change to a dingy yellow on the
back, scapulars, and tertials, the last of which have twelve spots on the
outer margin of the feathers, and six on the inner one ; the tertials are
very long, the longest of them reaching to within a quarter of an inch of
the extreme top of the wing, which reaches to the end of the tail ; the
quill feathers are wholly black, as are also the secondaries ; the upper part
of the rump -is black, and each feather slightly tipped with white, which
forms small wavy lines on that part of the plumage; the lower part of the
rump and upper tail coverts are pure white ; the tail, which is even at the
end, consists of twelve feathers, which are barred with black and white
alternately. At the end of Bewick's description of the green sandpiper
there is a very exact representation of a cover feather of the tail, and an
inner wing covert, which will give a better idea of their appearance than a
page of letterpress. The legs are dark green, the outer toe connected with
the middle one by a membrane as far as the first joint; toes very slender,
middle one 1^ in. long. Weight 2| oz. Killed on the 17th of September,
1831, near Stoneyhurst.

I have been thus minute in my description, from a wish to clear up the
doubt that appears to exist as to the identity of these two birds ; the one
I have now before me is undoubtedly the green sandpiper of Bewick, but it
corresponds, in so many particulars, with the wood sandpiper of Montagu,
and appears to combine so many of the peculiarities of each, without
Vol. V. — No. 23. g

82 Zoology,

exactly agreeing with either, that 1 think it proves satisfactorily their iden«
tity. The glossy green of the upper plumage, the barring of the under
wing coverts, and the tail, identify this bird with the green sandpiper, whilst,
on the other side, the yellowish spots on the scapulars and tertials, the
black rump, the length of the leg, and the web between the outer and
middle toes, are characteristic of the wood sandpiper of Montagu. I leave
your readers to decide whether this description (which is as accurately
given as I am able with the bird before me) is sufficient to identify the two
species. — T. G. Clitheroe, September 23. 1831.

The Middle-spotted Woodpecker of Bewick, — Among the few rare British
birds which it has been my good fortune to procure, is a woodpecker
which is not described in MontagiCs Dictionary^ although it is mentioned by
Bewick as a dubious species under the name of the middle-spotted wood-
pecker. I sent Mr. Rennie an account of this bird some time ago, but as I
know not whether he ever received my letter, I shall now repeat the descrip-
tion : — A pair of these birds had built their nest, or rather hatched their
young (for there was no nest), in a hole in a decayed ash, about 20 ft. from
the ground : there were two young ones, which I secured, as well as one of
the old ones, and they are all now in the possession of a friend of mine,
who is a collector of specimens of ornithology. The old one measured
9i in. long, and weighed 46i dwts. an hour after it was killed ; the forehead
is a dirty buff, and the whole crown of the head a bright crimson ; in other
respects it corresponds with the description of the whitwall (Picus major)
in Montagu and Bewick ; the young ones have also the bright crimson
head, and do not differ very materially from the old ones. — TV G. Clitheroey
September 2^. 1831.

Notes on the Scoter (A^nas nigra Lin., Oidemia nigra Flem.). — I killed
one of this species on the Ribble, on September 16. 1831, and. I mention
it, on account of the contradiction it gives to some particulars of the
description of this bird in Rennie's Montagues Dictionary. There it is
stated that " this bird is only seen with us in the winter season, and is
never observed to visit our rivers or freshwater lakes." The 16th of Sep-
tember, in this year, 1831, could hardly be called winter, and the place
where I killed it is forty miles from the sea. — T, G. Clitheroe, Septem-
ber 23. 1831.

Notes on the Turtle Dove, — May 6. Turtle dove (Columba jTurtur)
arrived. The poetical character of this innocent and beautiful emigrant
excites an interest in its favour even in the breast of the keenest sportsman.
They visit us in pairs, and take up their abode in some thick wood. Their
unsuspicious temper makes them not over careful in concealing their nest,
it being built on a sprayey part of a horizontal branch of a tree, about 8 ft.
or 10 ft. from the ground. They lay two eggs, and consequently breed but
one pair of young ones ; and this they do but once in the season. It is
probable they live many years, as the same spot is chosen for their nestling
for a course of years, though it is impossible to ascertain whether it be by
the same birds. They are remarkably swift on the wing, and can easily
escape from their mortal enemy, the sparrow-hawk, unless taken by sur-
prise. Their plaintive call of tur-tur^ tur-tur, is peculiarly pleasing, resem-
bling so much the accents and language of affection. Before they leave us
for the winter, they congregate in little bands of ten or twelve together,
about the end of September, and soon afterwards take their departure to
the southward.

They are particularly useful in this country to the farmer, by living chiefly
on the seeds of tine-tare (JS^rvura hirsutum), where it abounds ; and, as
this tare never vegetates but in wet seasons, the turtle may be observed
searching for the dormant seeds in dry ones. As they are seminivorous
birds, it is not likely that they go far to the southward in winter, as the
stubbles in the south of Europe will always supply them with food. They

Zoology. SS

are easily tamed, and easily preserved, if kept warm enough in winter. — ♦
J. M, May 6. 1831.

The same writer has additional remarks on this subject in the British
Farmer's Magazine for August, 1831, p. 347, 348., which we here present.
" Tine-tare is a most troublesome weed both in the field and the barn. In
the first, it literally strangles the crop ; in the second, it causes much
additional labour in sifting, to pass its seeds, and to bring its unbroken pods
to the surface to be picked off. Of this weed it is truly said, that the seeds
lie dormant in the soil for years, as they only vegetate in moist warm
summers. Turtle doves are particularly fond of this small pulse, frequent-
ing the stubbles in the autumn where the tares have grown ; and again in
May, when these stubbles are getting into order for turnips, or are pre-
viously sowed with oats or other crop." — J. D.

The Pied Flycatcher y or Goldfinch (Muscicapa luctuosa*), is said by all
the books to be common nowhere ; perhaps it is nowhere numerous : but
from my earliest years I have seen one or two, and this year, in company
with your fanciful correspondent Von Osdat, three pairs, among the old
oaks, on the slope close to the western walls of that stern and august man-
sion. Chirk Castle, where the rocks overhang the rapid Ceiriog, exactly
where OiTa's Dike crosses that river. I also even see them, in their season,
among the venerable and quiet shades of Vale-Crucis Abbey ; and in the year
1823 1 saw several in Gowbarrow Park, Cumberland, on the banks ofUlls-
water, as I perambulated that delicious country with my friend, that indus-
trious and scientific naturalist, John E. Bowman, Esq. F.L.S. For a de-
scription, I refer to my lamented friend Bewick, whOy in his modest diffi-
dence of his own surprising powers, has given two spirited cuts j both of
which are correct and striking attitudes the bird often assumes. Its man-
ners somewhat resemble those of the M. Grisoluy by snapping flies, and re-
turning again and again to the same stand. It has two notes, soft but very
audible, and not unmelodious, which it repeats alternately for eight or ten
times frequently. Its song is extremely like that of the redstart, and for
which, by an unornithic ear it might be readily mistaken, as it was even by
my accurate friend Wood, till I pointed out a slight diiference of the rough
curl in the middle of the short, but often resumed, song : and, like that
bird, it has a very favourite habit of just alighting a moment on the ground,
or hastily and insecurely on the side of a tree, picking an insect, and
instantly returning to the same perch. Early in every April, I observe a
pair in my orchard, where they play and feed for a day or two, probably on
their way to Wales. They are readily disting-uished, particulai'ly the male,
by the very striking contrast of extreme black and white; a magpie in
miniature, with a white spot, as it were the last snowdrop, very conspicuous
on the forehead. I am sure they return annually to the same holes in ths
old oaks,

** whose boughs are moss'd with age.

And high tops bald with dry antiquity;"

and, I think, by the very same line, as I generally see them in or near the
very same trees in my orchard on their passage : and so well do I know
when and where to watch for them, that one April, going to show my
amiable friend Tudor (your Bean-bee Tudor, Vol. IV. p. 94.), while adjust-
ing the focus of my small ornithoscope upon a post, the then-arrived bird

* Muscicapa luctuosa. It is seldom I like to see the good old names of
Linnaeus changed, who calls this bird Atricapilla : his cap, indeed, is not
entii'ely black; and the new specific term, luctuosa, better depicts the
fiomewhat mournful bearing of the bird, both in plumage and motion.

a 2

SI Zoology,

actually appeared within its field. — John Freeman Milward Dovaston.
Westfelto7i, near Shreivsburj/y July 20. 1831.

Intrepidity of the Sivallow. — G. M. remarks (Vol. IV. p. 146.) its attack-
ing the stoat (i^fustela errainea) : I have seen it attack the common cat in
the same manner. Swallows were and are allowed to build in out-houses
belonging to my father ; the house cat would often bask in the sun beside
the out-houses, when the swallows always testified their detestation of her
by flying over her head in a rapid sweeping curve, almost touching her in its
lowest inclination ; and they shrieked their hatred as they flew. The cat
was young and playful, and annoyed them in return by catching at them as
they passed : this time they would fly in front of her, next time behind
her ; and this alternation kept her oscillating, as it were, as her hind quar-
ters still lay on the ground, from side to side. Now and then, as if enraged
by their pertinacity and her own want of success, she would spring up into
the air at them as they passed, with her best vigour and agility ; but I never
knew her catch one. Mr. Main describes (Vol. IV. p. 413.) the dauntless
bravery of the swallow, and says, it is " one of the most vigilant videttes
for the safety of the feathered race." (See Vol. IV. p. 413. for farther in-
formation.) — J.D.

The Veridaniy a periodical, commenced two or three years ago, and
since discontinued, gave, in one of its Numbers, the following interesting
account of

A Cat wJiich caught Swallows on the Wing, — The thing appears, a priori^
nearly impossible, and yet we stake our credit on the authenticity of the
fact, having seen the whole process of grimalkin's wonderful cunning, and
almost miraculous rapidity. It was in the early part of May, when insects,
in consequence of the cold, fly low, and of course the swallows are forced
to hawk for their prey by skimming the surface of the ground. The wily
cat, taking advantage of this, stretches herself upon a sunny grass-plot,
with her legs extended, as if she were dead ; the flies collect about her, as
flies always do when they can find any animal as patient as my Uncle
Toby, to endure their tickling and buzzing; the simple swallows, dreaming
of no harm, and thinking they can here make a good meal, dip down from
the barren air, dart with open bill upon the flies ; when puss, perceiving
her prey within reach, makes a spring like a flash of lightning, and strikes
down with her paw the poor thoughtless swallow. The best marksmen
know how difficult it is to shoot a swallow on the wing ; but the cat found
her patience, cunning, and rapidity, well rewarded by her unerring success
whenever a swallow ventured within her reach. (Verulam.)

Tongue of the Frog (B.dna tempordria). Sir, Having, while dissecting a
frog, observed the peculiar construction of its tongue, and thinking it may
be as new to some of your readers as it was to myself, I am induced to
transmit to you the following remarks upon its structure and uses : — The
most striking peculiarity consists in the tongue being affixed to the anterior
part of the lower jaw, its greatest breadth being at the root, where it unites
with the jaw, and the point lying at the back part of the mouth ; it is also
partly confined by a membranous fraenulum [a membranous string under
the tongue], of the same substance as the tongue, and capable of some
expansion. The only conjecture I can oflfer as to the purposes this singular
structure is designed to effect is, that the food of this reptile, consisting of
molluscous animBls, whose tenacity of life is very extraordinary, and the
animal heat of the frog not being sufficient to destroy them immediately
after being received into the stomach, they might endeavour to escape,- and-
as this viscus is in the same direction as the mouth, it would favour their
so doing, did not the tongue effectually prevent them, by pressing against
the upper palate. According to this idea, this deviation from the general
structure fulfils the design of the Great Author of the Universe, whose

Zoology.

8^

^'mercies are over all his works." Yours, &c. — Juvenis. Edmonton,
November 25. 1831.

Trichiosoma lucdruniy the Pupa and Imago of, a Habitat of, and the
destruction of by one of the \chneum6nidce . — Sir, I find that the author of
Insect Architecture has passed by unnoticed the curious follicle formed by
the caterpillar of the Trichiosoma lucorum ; I therefore beg to furnish you
with the following facts respecting it : — My little boy, being very fond
of prying into the manners and customs of insects, brought home last
autumn several cones or follicles containing the pupae of the above species.
These he found on a hawthorn fence in Southwell Road, situate a few
hundred yards from Brazen Doors, in the south-west side of Norwich ;
and they were enclosed in a paper box, and remained in my study during
the past winter. To my surprise, on the 24th of April, 1831, my daughter
informed me that her brother had confined two bees in his box ; which,
on examination, proved to be two specimens of imagos of the above-
named species, that had changed from their pupa state, and escaped
from their follicles. This they had effected by working a transverse
groove in the inner surface of the follicle, with the strong mandibles
with which they are furnished j and, getting one of these through, they
cut the follicle nearly all round as if with a pair of shears, and this
done made egress readily. These curious follicles or cones (see^g. 34.)
34 ik^^ are formed of the

insect'sglutenand
of the contiguous
leaves of the haw-
thorn, which grow
in tufts on the
young twigs : se-
veral cones in my
possession have
the exterior leaves
entire. My curio-
sity induced me
to open one of
the cones or fol-
licles, which pro-
ved of so tough a
texture, that a
penknife entered
it with consideir-
able difficulty.

The inside of
the follicle had a
perfectly smooth,
I may say a po-
lished, surface ;
the outside had a
fibrous appear-
ance from the tex-
ture of the leafy
material out of

which the cone or follicle is constructed, and possibly also, in part,
from the agglutinated hairs of the larva. These cones, thus constructed,
must completely screen the insects from the observation of their larger
enemies ; but they have others to fear of a smaller kind. The Zchneiimon
[which species ?] deposits her eggs in the caterpillar or larva, which car-
ries them with it into its pupa state ; and these eggs of the /chneiimon,
are themselves afterwards hatched into caterpillars that eat up the insect

Or 3

86 Zoology.

in which they had been deposited. A specimen of the Trichiosdma was
found by a companion of my boy's, which was full of these /chneumon
caterpillars ; and an old empty follicle, which I found, had likewise had its
occupant destroyed by the same kind of depredators. The imagos or
flies of the Trichiosdma appear to be tolerably abundant in the habitat
mentioned.

The accompanying figure is sketched from nature by my young na-
turalist (now 9| years of age), who is entirely self-taught, and I hope it
may be sufficiently to your purpose to have it engraved ; as it would pro-
bably induce others to direct the attention of their children to the study of
nature. lam, Sir, yours, &c. — Samuel Woodward. Norwich, May 16. 1831.
The above instance of the check effected by the /chneuraonidae to
superabundant increase in the insect population, should be added to the
other instances enumerated p. 105. — J. D.

Corollas and Petals perforated by Bees. — Mr. RennLe disputes (Insect
Miscellanies^ p. 50.) the younger Ruber's assertion, that bees perforate
the tubes of bean flowers (-Faba vulgaris); he will find that assertion con-
firmed Vol. IV. p. 93. of this Magazine ; and that of their perforating the
nectaries of aconite blossoms averred Vol. IV. p. 479, In the present
Number, p. 74., he will perceive questionless testimony that bees also
perforate the blossoms of Antirrhinum majus, which Mr. Rennie (Insect
Miscellanies, p. 49.) disputes ; and also those of Jasminum officinale. In
addition to these instances, we present the following: — Dr. Withering,
in noticing our native columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris), in his Arrangement
of British Plants, observes, "The elongated and incurved nectary of this
flower seems to bid defiance to the entrance of the bee, in search of the
hidden treasure; but the admirable ingenuity of the sagacious insect is not
to be thus defeated ; for, on ascertaining the impracticability of effecting
his usual admission, he with his proboscis actually perforates the blossom
near the depot of honey, and thus extracts the latent sweets without
farther difficulty." (B. Maund, in his Botanic Garden for September, 1831,
under Aquilegia canadensis. No. 322.)

The following notice of petals perforated by bees, we quote from the
Jjancaster Herald of June 30. 1831 : —

" The Humble Bee. We have had a singular instance of the destructi-
bility of this insect, amongst carnations, communicated to us by Messrs,
Connelly and Son of this town, who have had many of their best flowers
destroyed by it. It appears that, as soon as the bud begins to open, the
bee settles upon it ; and by causing some injury to the foot of the petals,
by its proboscis, all farther process is stayed, and the bud dies, scarcely
half blown. This fact was mentioned to Mr. Loudon, who, when here,
found Mr. Connelly, jun., engaged in destroying the bees, and washing the
buds of his plants, to prevent farther injury." — J. D.

Hydrbbius lateralis not a British Insect. — Sir, Mr. Curtis having upon
my authority introduced into his valuable Guide * Hydi'obius lateralis Fab.
as a British insect, I feel it due to that gentleman as well as myself, to
state that its admission as such was erroneous, and that it has no claim
to be so regarded.

The fact is, that one or two entomologists in a distant part of the coun-
try (whose names I will not mention, believing them to be ashamed of
the transaction) managed to foist this insect on a very assiduous collector,
but possessing no scientific knowledge, by dishonourably substituting it
for an insect of a genus, to an unpractised eye, somewhat resembling it in
external appearance. The poor man, without any suspicion, disposed of
the insect as British, and of his own capturing, to the highly respectable

* A Guide to an Arrangement of British Insects, by John Curtis.
Reviewed in p. 429. of our Fourth Volume.

Botany,

n

gentleman in whose cabinet I observed it. Both this gentleman and the
collector, who is a very deserving and honest man, are now satisfied they
have been grossly imposed upon.

I cannot but express my unqualified detestation of all such attempts
at imposition, from whatever motives they may arise; but especially in
this instance, in which I have reason to believe the design of the parties
was utterly unworthy of men professing the slightest regard for science
I am. Sir, yours, &c. — A. H. Davis. London, Sept. 19. 1831.

Ravages of Cetonia hirta of Scopoli and Fabridus. — Sir, In some re-
marks on the Cetoniae, in the 94th number of British Entomologyy I
alluded to a letter addressed to the Horticultural Society of London, on
the subject of the ravages of a species of Cetonia, an extract from which
letter was transmitted to me, with specimens of the insect, for my opinion
respecting the species j and, as I regretted not being able to subjoin this
account to my observations, I hope you will do me the favour to give it a
place in your Magazine.

Mr. St. John says, " And a gentleman [the Cetonia hirta Scop, and
Fab.] which the Maltese call BouzufF, and the English inhabitants the
Botany Bay, after he has filled himself, retires under ground till the March
apricot blossoms, when he emerges ; and I am for two months obliged to
have people employed solely to pick him off the blossoms, of which he
readily eats the nectary ; and, having eaten one, he goes to the next. He is
very active, and flies like a bee. When the roses are in blossom, these
beasts are so fond of them, that you may take twenty out of one flower,
and in ten minutes as many more. A dark-coloured flower they never
touch. I don't think he is known in cold climates."

The beetle above alluded to by Mr. St. John is very similar in size and
<jolour to the Cetonia stictica figured in British Entomology (pi. 374.) ; but
it is duller and more hairy, and appears to me to be the Cetonia hirta of
Scopoli and Fabricius, which is found as far to the north as Paris. I am,
Sir, yours, &c. — John Curtis. Grove Place y Sept. 1831.

Art. n. Botany.

A VARIETY of the common Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris). — Su', I have on
three or four different occasions met with a variety of the common ground-
sel (^Venecio vulgaris), which I do not find noticed in our English Floras.
The florets, invested by the pappus, seem to be unnaturally protruded be-
yond the summit of the involucrum. This appearance reminds one of the
female flowers of Gnaphalium dioicum, and Tussilago Petasites. Having
found a specimen of this variety three days ago
near St. Albans, I send you a drawing of its in-
florescence (^g. 35.). a and b represent two
, states of the capitulum, of the natural size, and c is
'ja magnified floret. One striking deviation in this
variety from the ordinary character of the plant,
consists in the considerable exsertion of the stigma
beyond the anthers and far beyond the corolla,
arising from the elongation of the style; whereas
the stigma is in general scarcely, if at all, protruded.
Smith, in the English Flora (vol. iii. p. 428.), makes
it a generic character of iS'enecio, that the style is
" the length of the stamens," whose anthers, how-
ever, are not always, as in the present variety,
wholly within the corolla. Another anomaly in
the florets of this variety consists in the length of
the ovai-ium ; being twice that which it has in the
G 4

$&

Botany,

ordinary state. The stigmas, anthers, and pollen appeared to be quite per-
fect, and to possess their usual characters ; but I believe that all the seeds
would have been abortive, at least all the ovaries that I dissected were
incomplete. We may probably ascribe the elongation of the style and
ovarium to their appropriating that portion of nutriment, which would
otherwise have been employed for developing the embryo. I am. Sir, yours,
&c. — J. S. Henslow. Cambridge^ Sept. 6. 1831.

Fumdria Vailldntu, a British Plant. — I had gathered this plant on Chat-
ham Hill, Kent, about five years ago, and had placed it in my herbarium as
a variety of F. parviflora ,• when, accidentally looking over some of the
species of this genus with Professor Lindley, a specimen caught my atten-
tion which I immediately identified with the Chatham Hill plant. This
specimen was subscribed F. Vaillantw; and upon my return to Cambridge,
I forwarded my own specimen to Professor Lindley, that he might compare
it with his. He has decided it to be the same, and I therefore do not hesi-
tate to add this species to our British list. — J. S. Henslow. Cambridge,
Sept. 16. 1831.

Mr. David Don, on inspecting the specimens marked F. parviflora in the
herbarium of Mr. T. F. Forster, has found all of them to be F. VaillantM,
except some derived from Kent ; and he hence conceives it probable that
F. Vaillantw is even a more frequent plant than F. parviflora. Mr. Don
still considers the description in Smith's Fng. Flora^ vol. iii. p. 236., to be
accurately applicable to F. parviflora, except in the habitats. — J. D,

Cineraria integrifolia, and its Varieties. — Sir, In looking over Sir J. E.
Smith's description of Cineraria integrifolia (Fng. Flor., vol. iii. p. 445.), I
find that he was rather inclined to consider the var. /3, called by some
C. jjriarltima, but not that of Linnaeus, a distinct species, but was deterred
by the very variable nature of the Cinerariae nearly allied to this species;
He observes concerning it, " It is twice the size of the above (var. a), with
numerous broad teeth to some of its radical leaves, with four to six flowers
in the umbel, nearly twice the size of those on the Newmarket Heath
specimens ; " L e. the var. a. (Jig. 36.) My reason for calling the attention
of your readers to this is, that on the 8th of
last June, when searching on the Gogmagog
Hills, near this place, for the var. a, which
generally grows there in great plenty, I was
unable to obtain any specimens, but found the
var. /3 in the greatest plenty, growing in the
very same place in which the var. a is com-
monly found. Now, it appears from this that
the moisture ofthe weather duringlast spring had
the same effect here which the vicinity of the
sea has at Holyhead, where this large variety was
found byMr.Davies, as recorded by Smith, name-
ly, that of converting this species from the small
state in which it is usually found, into the large
and dissimilar plant called by Mr. Davies Cinera-
ria marltima integrifolia. We may, I think,there-
fore, from the var. /3, which was, I believe, not
before known in that locality, having last year
totally supplanted the var. a, which had always
previously been found in that place, and was not
to be seen last year, conclude that the two are
nothing more than varieties of the same plant,
caused by difference in the degree of moisture.
I have sent the accompanying specimens, that you may see the great differ-
ence in size and appearance of the two varieties ; of which var. a was
gathered on the Devil's Ditch, Newmarket Heath, June 5. 1820, and var.

Meteorology, 89

(i on the Gogmagog Hills, June 8. 1829. In some specimens of this last
there were four or even five stems to one root. It may be as well to add,
that the var. /3 has never before, so far as I know, been found at such
a distance from the sea. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — Charles C. Babington.
St. John's College, Cambridge, Feb. 12. 1830.

Art. III. Meteorology.

The East Wind. — The ill effects of the east wind on health have always
been noticed. It is well known that air, as it grows warmer, becomes
capable of holding in solution (or drinking up) a greater quantity of
moisture ; a current of cold air rushing into a place which is warmer will,
therefore, dry up a great deal of wet. For this reason, damp clothes in
winter, placed in the open window of a warm room, dry uncommonly fast.
Now, it is well known that nothing is more pernicious to the health than
a sudden drying up of the perspiration. Whether this be owing merely to
the cold caused on the skin by the evaporation of so much moisture, or to
the deranging of some other link in the animal economy, need not be
asked ; it is sufficient that the fact is so. For this reason, exposure to
any current of air which is acquiring heat, and is therefore becoming drier,
is uncommonly prejudicial. Every one has observed how disagreeable
are currents of air m warm rooms ; in fact, the warmer the room, and the
nearer we are to the fireplace, so much. the more annoying is a draft from
any of its crannies. Such a current, increasing in heat as it passes from
the cold of the external air to the warmth of a room, will absorb double
its former moisture, and of course will dry the perspiration on the body
faster than it can be supplied, causing by that means rheumatism in all its
forms, toothache, headache, &c. Now, it is evident that the same reason
which causes a draft from the open air into a room to be disagreeable, will
cause any Avind jjlowing from a cold region into one that is warmer, to
have exactly the same effects. The east wind is in this predicament ; it
blows from a colder continent, which retains the cold of winter longer
than the marine tract on which we are situated, the temperature of which
is more equal, and at such times warmer. Damp or misty winds are
also proverbially hurtful, and their injurious effects seem to arise from
the moisture continually deposited by them on the body, which is evapo-
rated by the natural heat, and causes in that process an unusual and hurt-
ful degree of cold, or diminution of the animal temperature. — N.

London Fogs. — Mr. Davy, the brother of Sir Humphry Davy, was,
I believe, the first person who broadly laid it down that fogs arise when-
ever the air becomes colder than the water. From this principle we
can draw the following conclusions: — 1. Fogs will be most frequent in
autumn, after the earth has been heated during the summer, the air cooling
faster than the earth. 2. Fogs will be greatest after the hottest summer.
3. Fogs show that the air has become suddenly colder, and therefore are
a sign of snow. 4. Fogs will be rare in hot climates, where the air is
usually very hot. 5. Fogs will be very frequent in the arctic regions, where
the sudden depressions of temperature are enormously below the mean
temperature. 6. Fogs will be most frequent over shallow water, which
sooner partakes of the temperature of the bottom, than the deep water.
The end of the deep water is known, near the banks of Newfoundland,
by the sudden commencement of the fogs. The thick fogs which appeared
during Captain Franklin's last expedition prove that the sea is very
shallow, and the mean temperature not very low, upon that part of the
arctic coast. 7. If the London fogs have increased during late years, it
will prove either that the mean temperature has increased, or that the

90

Meteorology,

variations of temperature have increased, or that a disproportion of
temperature between the water and air has increased, or that the
Thames has diminished in depth. It is my behef that the last has
occurred, partly from the natural rise of all embanked river beds, and
partly from the effect of Waterloo Bridge. This bridge is unhappily placed
near a bend of the river, and it is to be feared that the allignment of the
arches of the other bridge, and the course of the current, have not been
duly considered. The only remedy is to narrow the channel, so as to
increase its depth, upon some such plan as Colonel Trench's. The quays
of the insignificant Seine are open, the Thames is inaccessible. It is,
however, very dubious whether that great work would pay as a commer-
cial speculation. {Courier ^ Nov. 20. 1827.)

On the Crystallisation of Snow. — Sir, Having been so fortunate as to
meet with the snow crystals in great plenty this winter, I cannot help
thinking that, as I believe they are not often seen in this country, it may
be acceptable to some of your readers to have the following short account
of them : — On the 4th of this month (Feb. 1830.), and for some days after,
the thermometer standing at about 22°, and the wind from the E.N.E.
nearly all the snow that fell was of that beautiful stellated form, called by
Scoresby, in his work on the Arctic Regions (vol. i. p. 477.), the " lamellar
stelliform crystals." They consist mostly of six points, radiating from a
centre, forming with each other, at that centre, angles of 60°, and having
commonly additional ramifications on the primary ones, in the same plane
with them, and forming angles of 60° with the primaries, as in the following
figures {Jig. 37.), of which the form b was the most common, and after that

c and d. e and / were but seldom seen, and g I met with but once.
The last three appear to be formed by the obliteration of the alternate
rays, so as to form angles of 120° instead of 60°; the additional rami-
fications still forming angles of 60°, with the primaries, hy i, and k,
which I did not see myself, but which were communicated to me by a friend,
appear to be crystals in a progressive state of formation. The size of the
crystals varied from one eighth to one third of an inch in diameter. It
appears from Scoreby's table (vol. i. p. 433.), that the time when the
greatest quantity of crystals fell was when the thermometer stood between
16° and 22°, and the wind was N.E. or N.N.E. ; which nearly corresponds
with what was observed here. Th& forms observed do not exactly agr^e

Meteorology, 91

with those figured by Scoresby ; but /, m, w, o, and /), are those of his which
come nearest to the English ones. — Cacale. Cambridge^ Feb. 12. 1830.

Anchor Frosts. — Jan. 22. 1828. The state of the weather forms a prin-
cipal part of our every-day conversation ; much of our personal comfort,
and very often our health, depends on it. The approach of winter is par-
ticularly felt, for

— - " This is the season when
An icy gale, oft shifting, o'er the pool
Breathes a blue film, and in its mid career
Arrests the bickering stream : " Thomson.

and which sometimes takes place in a wonderful manner. It is necessary
to premise that it is as natural for the element of water to be solid as fluid,
and that its fluidity only depends on that temperature of the atmosphere
which is marked by Fahrenheit's thermometer at the thirty-third degree :
at and above this point, water is fluid; and, below, it is solid, or in the state
of ice. From the short days, and oblique direction of the sunbeams, the
heat received by the surface of the earth in the day is soon radiated ofi',
and the colder air from the higher regions of the sky descends and reposes
on the surface of the ground. At the same time, too, if the face of the
ground becomes incrusted by frost, the natural heat of the earth is pre-
vented from escaping to increase the temperature of the air, and this being
cooled down to the thirty-second degree, water becomes congealed, and, as
the poet has said, the rapid river is even arrested in its course. In ordi-
nary cases, the crystallisation begins on the surface j on every part simul-
taneously on stagnant pools, if the air be perfectly calm ,* but on water in
motion, whether as that of a stream, or when ruffled by wind, the crystal-
lisation begins at the sides, and gradually shoots across the surface, till the
whole is a connected plate, and, in continued frost, increases in thickness
from below. But great bodies of ice are formed, and stop the current of
rivers, in a very difierent way, and this, when it happens, is called by the
owners of water-mills an anchor frost. In this the ice begins to form at the
bottom of the stream (it never happening in pools or stagnant water),
instead of on the surface. This unusual phenomenon, so contrary to our
common ideas respecting the action of frost, may, however, be rationally
accounted for by any one who has attended to it. The streams in which
anchor frosts are most commonly seen are such as contain water of different
temperatures, viz. surface drainage and land springs, and supplies from
main springs. The first are always several degrees colder in winter than
the latter, which is never less than 40°, even in the severest frosts. This
mixed stream is partially affected by the air when below the freezing point.
The colder globules are first frozen, shoot into crystals of various shapes,
jand may be seen floating on the surface individually, and are prevented
coalescing by the intermediate main spring water, which, although warmer,
does not entirely dissolve the already frozen particles. In the deeper parts
of the river no accumulation of these crystals is visible; but in the shallows,
where the water percolates through or over a pebbly bottom, there the crys-
tals are intercepted between the interstices of the stones, and then become
heaped together in thick beds, so as even to throw the current out of its
channel. At the gratings of the water-gates of mills, the spicula are also
accumulated, and are greater annoyances to the miller than the thickest
ice on the surface of the mill-pond, because of the difficulty of clearing it
away. The fact of the crystals of ice (which are specifically much lighter
than water) sinking below the surface, is an attending circumstance which
requires explanation. They do not sink from theii- specific gravity, but in
the commotion of the current they are occasionally submersed, and while
so are stopped by any obstruction, where they commence and compose the
aggregation. — /. ilf. Ja«.22. 1831.

92

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Art. I. Foreign Notices.
POLYNESIA.

Notices on the Native Plants of the Island of Rotuma, Southern Pacific
Ocean. — This beautiful island, clothed in verdure, has a fertile and pictur-
esque appearance. As its shores are approached, cocoa-nut palms (Cocos
nucifera), in an infinite number, are seen elevating their feathered tops
above the other trees ; and, on a nearer approach, native houses can be seen,
near the beach, mingling with the beautiful tropical vegetation. On landing,
the luxuriance and beauty of the vegetation charms the eye. Near the
beach, the fifau (Calophyllum Inophyllum) and several species of the
Panddnus are seen, apparently enjoying the moisture from the sea. On
proceeding farther inland, not only the cocoa-nut palm, with its feathery
fronds waving and rustluig to the passing breeze, but an infinite variety of
shrubs and plants, meet the eye, glowing in nature's most brilliant colours,
and teeming with fragrance. Occasionally the wildness and luxuriance of
nature gives place to the art and industry of man, diversifying the scene.
In a cleared spot are seen the plantations of yams (Dioscorea sativa, or per-
haps aculeata), and the J'rum esculentum : the root of the latter is much
esteemed when cooked, although poisonous in a crude state ; the acrid
poison being removed by the action of fire. This root, here named ahan,
is more commonly known by the name of taro among the Pol3'nesian
Islands. Plantations of sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum), bread-fruit
(Artocarpus incisa et var.), and plantains (Musa paradisiaca), are also
seen ; and, although all are cultivated in a rude manner, this cultivation
sufficiently shows the industry of man in a savage state, when stimulated by
necessity. There is a large species of ^Vum also cultivated, named aper
by the natives ( J^rum costatum), the root of which is also eaten ; but the
other species of JVum are usually preferred. *

Casuarina equisetifolia. Among other beautiful trees is the toa, or Casua-
rma equisetifdlia : it has a delicate drooping appearance, and is a tree of
very elegant growth. It is usually seen planted in clumps about the vil-
lages, or displaying its mournful appearance in the native burial-places
(morals), for which its sombre appearance renders it an apt ornament.
The wood of this tree is very hard, and of a beautiful dark reddish brown
colour; and, from its hardness and durability, has been named iron
wood by Europeans. The natives employ the wood in the manufacture
of clubs, spears, &c.

Calophyllum inophyllum. Another elegant tree is the fifau, or Calophyl-
lum inophyllum, usually seen growing by the sea-side : it is a lofty branch-
ing tree, with thick, ovate, transversely linear, dark green leaves ; the flowers
are in clusters, of a white colour, with yellow anthers, and have much fra-
grance; the fruit is, when mature, of a reddish brown colour, and is also fra-

* It is named cabbe at Tongatabu, and ape at Tahiti,

Foreign Notices : — Polynesia, 93

grant. A scented gum-resin is produced from this tree, which at first exudeS:
of a clear amber colour, but soon after becomes of a greenish yellow. The
wood is hard, of a red colour, and handsomely veined; varying, however, in
the beauty of its veins; it is close-grained, and, according to the cabinet-
maker's phraseology, " bottoms well." It resembles Honduras mahogany'
in the working, as also, in some degree, in appearance. The tree attains
an elevation of 50 or 60 ft. ; and about 10 or 12 ft. in circumference. The
wood is used by the natives for a variety of purposes ; and they value and
plant the tree for the shade it aflbrds them, as also for the beauty and
fragrance of the flowers. *

Spondias dulcis. A tree highly valued for its fruit is the vi (5p6ndias
dulcis of Parkinson) [called in English books on botany the Otaheite
apple] : it is found also abundantly at the Society Islands. It is a lofty
and handsome tree, attaining the height of 60 ft., and a circumference of
12 or 15 ft. It is one of the few trees found to be deciduous in Poly-
nesia. The leaves are pinnate, of a light green colour, with serrate and
transversely ribbed leaflets, the petioles are round ; the flowers are racemed,
small and white ; the fruit is oval, in size about that of a goose's egg, and,
when mature, of a bright yellow colour ; the external covering has a tere-
binthinate [turpentine] flavour, but the pulp is sweet and pleasant to the
taste ; it grows in bunches. The core is spiked, and is usually two-celled.
An albuminous substance is found in some quantity about the core. This
tree yields a resinous gum, of a greenish yellow colour and fragrant odour.
The wood is used at Tahiti in making canoes.

Sapindaceous ? Trecy near the Genus Euphoria. Indigenous to this island
(and the only one, among the Polynesian group that I visited, at which it,
was observed) is a lofty tree, which appeared to be of the natural family
Sapindaceae, related to Euphoria, and is called thav by the natives : it
attains the height of 50 or 60 ft., and a circumference of 7 or 8 ft. ; it
bears a fruit, about the size of a walnut, with a thin rind, which being removed
displays a white glareous pulp, enveloping several rather semilunar brown
seeds ; the fruit has an agreeable flavour ; the leaves are pinnate, large, and
of a dark green colour. It is found in fruit about the months of December,
January, and February.

Uvdria odordta. On elevated land, as well as occasionally planted about
the native habitations, is seen the Uvaria odorata, called mouscoi by the
natives. It is a small tree, with somewhat pendent branches. The leaves
are ovate-lanceolate, and of a dark green colour ; the flowers have long
linear-lanceolate petals, of a light yellow colour, with a red spot situated
internally at the base of each petal ; the flowers have a powerfully fra-
grant smell, which is retained for a very long time when they are in a dried
state. The natives dry the petals, and use them for scenting their cocoa-
nut oil. The flowers are succeeded by a fruit, which grows in bunches of

* This tree is called tamanu, or ati, at the island of Tahiti, where the
wood is used in making canoes, and is also held valuable for shipbuilding.
It was formerly a sacred tree, and planted in the morai, where it was death
to break a branch, or in any way to injure it. In India, this tree is named
qashumpa, and the oil extracted from the nuts is there used as a liniment
in rheumatism, &c. The gum-resin, which exudes both spontaneously and
on incisions being made in the trunk, is the tacamahaca resin of commerce,
which was formerly held in high estimation as an ingredient in warm
stimulating plasters, &c. The females of Tahiti use the resin as a scent,
as also the fruit, which is possessed of much fragrance, and is said to
yield a yellowish dye. The fruit is also scraped, and mixed with the bark
of the ante (Broussonetea papyrifera), for the purpose of giving a fra-
grant smell to the cloth.

94 Foreign Notices : — Polynesia,

tea to eighteen, of small size, and a very dark green colour; each capsule
contains six or more small brown seeds, embedded in a white pithy sub-
stance.

The Inocarpiis edidis, or if o£ the natives, is also abundant at this island:
it is the maipe, or rata, of the Island of Tahiti ; and is called the South
Sea [or Otaheite] chestnut by Europeans. It is a lofty tree, attaining
the elevation of 50 or 60 ft. The trunk of this tree has a singular appear-
ance, more particularly after it has attained some age : this singularity con-
sists in projections from the trunk, like buttresses, standing out some dis-
tance from what seems to be the actual trunk, and may be said to have an
appearance of several trees united together ; these buttresses extend from
the root to the branches, being widest at the base. The wood of this tree
is close-grained, but not durable, and is seldom used, except as fire-
wood ; the leaves are oblong, long, and of a dark green colour. The
flowers are in racemes, small, white, and fragrant. The fruit is highly
esteemed, and, when roasted or steamed, has the taste of a chestnut. " It
fattens man as well as pig," say the Rotuma natives ; and is much used by
them as an article of food. The fruit grows in clusters, is flat, and some-
what reniform. The kernel is solitary, and enclosed in a thick tough co-
riaceous covering, of a dark yellowish colour when mature, and contains
much farinaceous substance. This tree is of very handsome growth. At
Rotuma I usually observed it growing on the elevated land. At tlie
Island of Tahiti, it appeared to grow most luxuriantly in the valleys, by the
margins of rivers, &c.

Vrtica argentea. By the pathways, growing in a wild state, may be
observed the f/rtica argentea, called amea by the natives : the inner bark
of which is used by them in the manufacture of a fine kind of matting, as
well as of fishing-nets, lines, &c.

Tunning Plants. Twining over the dense thickets are seen several species
of Convolvulus, as well as a species of H6y« (which I saw also at Ton-
gatabu and Erromanga) bearing greenish white flowers [Hoya viridifl6ra ?] ;
also the foi (Convolvulus brasiliensis), hoi of Tahiti, with its broad, cor-
date, dark, shining, green leaves, and bearing a potato-like fruit, which is
only eaten in times of scarcity, and then, previously to being used, is soaked
for a short time in water.

Fan Palm. Among the palm tribe (besides the valuable cocoa palm) I
observed a small species of fan palm, called fakmor by the natives ; the
leaves of which are used as wrappers for their mats,&c., and also serve the
purpose of umbrellas. A native carries one over his head, to shelter him
from the fervency of the tropical sun.

A Species of Sagus. On the elevated land grew (both wild and planted
by the natives) a species of Sdgiis ; differing from that found in the Eastern
Archipelago, &c., in having pyriform instead of rotundiform fruit : the
petioles of the leaves, as well as the trunk, are armed with thorns, growing
in a retrorse or downward direction ; the back part of the central stalk of
the leaflets is also epinated [aculeate] ; the fruit grows in large bunches.
This palm is called hoat by the natives ; and I have seen it growing to the
height of 20 or 30 ft. Some natives of Tongatabu, who were on board
our ship at the Island of Rotuma, when they saw the fruit, said it also
grew at the Island of Tongatabu, where it was called niu sava. I never
observed it myself at that island. The natives of Rotuma eat the pith of
the tree, which they said " tasted like the mara, or arrow-root." They
extract the pith, and rub it down between stones. The fruit is also eaten
when very young ; that is, the soft pith-like substance which surrounds the
hard stone. The fruit, however, is principally kept for planting, as the tree
is also highly valued for its fronds, which, on account of their durability,
are used for thatching their houses. I should consider this species as
peculiar to elevated land, as I never, in one instance, at Rotuma, observed

Toreign Notices : — Polynesia, 9i

it growing on low land. I have presented a young specimen of this palm
to the botanical collection of the British Museum.

Of the Genus Viper, they have the kava or ava plant (Piper methis-
ticum), which is cultivated for use ; and also a twining species, called shas
by the natives, which envelopes the trees in its vicinity with its dark
foliage.

Of Plants allied to Amomum. The turmeric plant is abundant, both wild
and cultivated : the root is used by the natives in the formation of a
colouring substance for daubing their bodies on particular occasions. By
cultivation, the roots attain a larger size and better quality. The ginger
[Zingiber officinale ?] is also seen abundant, wild, and is called rang apua
by the natives, and at Tahiti, rea : it is also abundant, wild, at the New
Hebrides group.

Dioscorea, or Yam. The natives of this island have a small species of
yam (Diosc6r<?«), named by Europeans the Rotuma potato, and by the
natives, ule: it occasionally grows large j but the small ones are con-
sidered of the best quality.

The Ahan or Taro (A^'rum esculentuni) is also cultivated ; but, from A
deficiency of water irrigation, it is principally confined to the mountain
variety. The taro plant requires a moist soil, and that the roots should
be kept covered with water : this is indispensably requisite for the pro-
duction of good taro. If the soil is not sufficiently moistened, the roots
become watery, and not eatable. It can be planted at any season of the
year, and is propagated by means of the tops and young shoots ; and
requires about six months to attain perfection. There are also several
varieties of mountain or dry land taro ; but the roots are not equal to
those which grow in a moist or watery soil.

Of the Tho, or Sugar Cane, they have several varieties ; but the cane is
(as at the whole of the Polynesian Islands) only eaten in a raw state.

The splendid Barringtoma speciosa, or huthu of the natives, is abundant ;
as also at Tongatabu, where it is named futu ; and at Tahiti, where it is
named hutu. It is lofty, branchy tree, and bears a profusion of mag-
nificent pinkish flowers, which are succeeded by a large quadrangular
drupe containing a four-celled nut : it attains the elevation of 40 or 50 ft^,
and a circumference of 10 or 14 ft. : the leaves are entire, obtuse, shining,
coriaceous, and of a dark green colour. The wood is seldom or never
used, except as firewood; but the fruit is used (as at Tongatabu and
other of the Polynesian Islands) for poisoning fish.

Pandanus, Species and Varieties of. There are several species of the
Panddnus on the island, bearing the native names hoshoa, pauhuf, sahang,
and hat. The first attains a very large size, and the foliage is several feet
in length. The fruit is of. great magnitude; one I procured weighed 60
pounds. The pauhuf is the male tree of the Panddnus odoratissimus (the
female tree has a distinct native name of hat) ; the floral leaves are of a
milk-white colour, and very fragrant. I am not aware that the farina or
pollen is possessed of any fragrance. The younger leaves of the species
named sahang are bleached, and afterwards used in the manufacture of
the varieties of matting, named by the natives ape sala, &c, ; and from the
older leaves a coarse matting is manufactured, named ehap.

Of the Porij or Plantain Tree (Musa), they have several varieties;
and they have also the mountain variety (the fei of Tahiti) named shai.
This variety differs in its mode of growth from the lowland varieties, in
having clusters of fruit rising erect from a short thick stalk in the centre
of the tuft of leaves at the summit, whilst the others have them pendent
from the stem. The mountain variety, when roasted, either when green or
mature, is excellent ; but, when raw, has a roughness, even when ripe,
which renders it not very agreeable to eat. The colour of the fruit ex-
ternally is of a bright orange, and internally the pulp is of a bright yellow.
The broad expansive leaves are of a very dark shining green. The trunk,

96 Foreign Notices : - — Polynesia,

on being cut, yields a quantity of purplish-coloured juice: I collected some
quantity of it during my visit to the Island of Tahiti, in October, 1829.

A Species of Urania, On the elevated land, I found a species of Urania
in flower.

An Aroideous Plant. There is a plant, abundant at the Polynesian
Islands, as well as in the Eastern Archipelago, with a long rough petiole
terminating in a pinnatifid umbellated leaf: it resembles much an A^Yum
in growth, and is probably a species of Calddium; it is named shoa
at this island (and teve at the Island of Tahiti). The roots possess very
acrid properties. A young chief (Iraf ), when I gathered a specimen at
Rotuma, which he thought I intended to eat, observed, " No good, you
eat it make mouth sore."

JMardnta artmdindceay Tacca pinnatijida, ^-c, siijyjyly the Arrow-root of
Commerce. The farina or flour from the roots of various tribes of plants
constitutes the arrow-root of commerce. In India it is prepared from the
Maranta arundinacea, and at Tahiti and other of the Polynesian Islands
from the Tdcca pinnatifida : this latter plant is seen growing in a dry soil,
on low land, and sometimes also on the declivities of the mountains. The
leaves arise from the root by petioles, which are from 1 ft. to li ft. in
length ; they are pinnatifid, umbellated, broad, and of a light green colour;
from the centre of the foliage arises a tall, erect, naked, flowering stem,
bearing flowers of a greenish colour, which are almost unbellated, with
some pedunculate, others almost sessile ; the peduncles are capillary, in-
termixed with long hanging filaments ; the involucre is composed of several
large sessile leaflets, sheathing at their base, longer than the flowers. The
fruit is an oval berry, narrowed at both extremities ; and, when ripe, of
a gr^nish yellow colour, has six longitudinal ribbed marks externally,
and contains numerous small light brown seeds, striated longitudinally, and
embedded in a watery pulp. The roots are roundish, of a reddish colour ;
and, in an unprepared state, are possessed of acrid properties. At Tahiti
and the Sandwich Islands, this plant and the farina produced from it is
named pia ; at the Island of Rotuma, mara ; at the Island of Tongatabu,
maa-euah; and at the Island of Tucopia, massoa. When the leaves
perish, which occurs annually, the roots are dug up, and are prepared, at
this as well as the other Polynesian Islands, in the following manner: — The
roots are washed, and grated on a piece of coral into a large bowl of
water; the grated portion is afterwards strained through a sieve (generally
made from the fibrous net-like covering found at the base of the frond of
the cocoa-nut tree) ; and the farina or flour settles at the bottom of the
vessel : the water is renewed daily, until the farina assumes a very white
appearance ; and by this process the acridity of the root is also removed :
the farina, when taken out, is found formed into a solid mass : it is then
broken into pieces, and well dried in the sun. Formerly, the natives of
Tahiti formed the farina into large balls. These the sun not being able to
penetrate, the interior was usually moist and damaged, which occasioned it
to get into disrepute as an article of commerce : they now adopt a better
method. This farina or flour is found excellent for bread, when mixed
with one half of wheaten flower, and is used by the missionaries at Ta-
hiti in that manner, as their supplies of flour are very precarious ; it is
also used as a starch for linen, &c.

Bonnets of the Native Females. The native females at the Island of
Tahiti prepare the stalk of this plant in the following manner, and, plaiting
it, use it in the manufacture of bonnets (they also use a kind of grass in
the manufacture of bonnets). The stalk of the Tdcca pinnatifida is split
down, and, the inner substance having been scraped away with a shell, is
frequently again scraped, with the addition of water, until it is well cleaned;
the outer green epidermis is then removed, in a similar manner, from the
other side, which seems to be the most difficult part of the process : after
this has been done, a fine shining white thin substance remains, which,

Monthly Calendar of Nature for Scotland,

97

after being dried in the sun, is ready for use. The bonnets made from
this material have a neat appearance. — George Bennett^ F,L.S. M.R.C.S.,
^c. Lo?idony December 5. IS31.

Art. II. MontJdy Calendar of Nature for Scotland,

Extracts from the Meteorological Register kept at Annat Gardens, Perth-
shire, N. lat. 56° 23i^ above the Level of the Sea 172 Ft., and 15 Miles
from the Coast; being the Mean of daily Observations at 10 o' Clock
Morning and 10 o' Clock Evening.

Results for October.

Month.

Mean
temper,
ature.

Mean
of dew
point.

Mean of
minim,
temper-
ature.

Mean of
barometer.

Depth of
rain in
inches.

Depth of
evapor-
ation.

October 1. to 10.
10. to 20.
20. to 31.

52-9°

55-3

54-7

48-2
53-5
49-4

43-2°

48

42-7

29-30
29-38
29-34

3-00

1-01

•70

-21
-35
•40

Monthly mean

54-3°

53-3°

44-6'^

29-40

4-71

•96

The average mean temperature for October, at this place, is 48'4"'. This
season it has been nearly 6^ higher, and 4° higher than in any correspond-
ing month for the ten past years. The heavy fall of rain in course of the
first ten days, amounting to 3 in., is also of rare occurrence. The dew
point was also nearer the mean temperature, and the evaporation less, than
usual. The following are the

Results for November.

Month.

Mean
temper-
ature.

Mean
of dew
point.

Mean of
minim,
temper-
ature.

Mean of
barometer.

Depth of
rain in
inches.

Depth of
evapor-
ation.

Nov. 1. to 10.
10. to 20.
20. to 30.

38-5°

36-9

43-6

36-0°

35-5

40-0

32-9°

31-3

36-9

29-32
29-33
29-84

-80

3-10

•40

-21
•31
•18

Monthly mean

39-6°

37-1°

33-7°

29-49

4-30

•70

The average mean temperature for November, at this place, is 42-3°,
This season the unusual warmth in October was followed by a severe storm
of frost and snow early in November.

The lowest temperature in October was on the 27th : extreme cold,
39° J wind north- west. The warmest day in that month was on the 18th :
mean temperature of that day, 62°, an elevation which it seldom reaches in
October in this climate ; extreme heat, 68° ; wind westerly. On 26 days
the wind blew from westerly points ; on 2 days, from easterly points ; and
on 3 days, it was variable. There were loud winds, about the velocity of
10 miles an hour, on the 22d and 30th. There were 9 days of clear, and
3 of partial, sunshine ; on 18 days the atmosphere was cloudy.

The coldest day in November was on the 19th : mean temperature of

Vol. v.— No. 23. h

98 jRetrospedive Criticism,

that day, 20^ ; extreme cold, 22° j wind north-west. The warmest day in
that month was on the 12th: mean temperature of that day, 53°; extreme
heat, 57^; wind west. On 13 days the wind blew from west and south-
west ; on 6 days, from north-west ; on 7 days, from due north ; and on 4
days, from easterly points. There were 10 days of clear, and 2 of partial,
sunshine; 18 were cloudy.

The copious rains, and unusual warmth, in the early part of October,
produced a sort of late autumnal growth in trees and shrubs, which has
made them more tenacious than ordinary of retaining their foliage, not-
withstanding the severe frosts in November. The laurustinus was in full
blossom by the end of October ; and on the 5th of November the Highland
hUls were covered from to 1 to 2 ft. deep with snow : violent winds from
the north-west, blowing over the snow-clad hills, gave early indication of a
storm, which followed on the 16th, and several subsequent days. The
storm had spent its rage by the 20th ; and on the 23d the thermometer
stood at 53°, or 29° higher than on the 19th and 20th. In the fields early
sown wheat is rather forward, much having the coronal roots already
formed; a general precursor of a small ear, these roots being often hurt
by the winter or spring frosts. Wheat sown on the Sd of November is just
beginning to appear, but is not yet fully brairded. The fieldfares and wild
geese arrived in the low carse [vale] early in November. In the cultivated
districts partridges have been strong, and in great plenty ; and the moorfowl
aiforded fine sport (if sport it can be called) on the hills. The J'rbutus
C/^nedo was in full blow by the middle of October, and its berries [those
from the blossoms of October, 1830] are now assuming a scarlet colour.
JVarcissus, and other bulbous-rooted plants, begin to send their foliage
above ground. The flowers of the sweet-smelling coltsfoot (Tussilago
fragrans) have been nipt by the frost, when left in the open air ; no plant
pays better with scent in the green-house in the winter months. The
Tritoma media shows a vigorous flower stem in the open border, notwith-
standing the late severe frost ; and the Aponogeton distachyon is now in
full blossom in a well where the temperature of the water is 47°. — A, G,
Annat Gardens y December 1. 1831.

Art, III. Retrospective Criticism.

The Mot in Sheep, asremBrked on in Vol. IV. p. 284. 472. — D. N. has
had but few opportunities, I fear, of examining sheep in the early stages
of the rot, or he could scarcely have hazarded his theory of the biliary
circuit and deposit of tubercles on the liver. (Vol. IV. p. 472.) It cannot, T
conceive, be demonstrated that bile is thrown back upon the system, and
mingles with the circulating fluid ; for in the early stages there is no obstruc-
tion to the bile ; and in the latter, what little is secreted is intercepted by
the flukes (Vol. IV. p. 284. fig. 51.) on the hepatic side of the gall-bladder.
The eye, which D. N. takes as an index to the bilious condition of the sys-
tem, has really not that " tinge of yellow and jaundiced-like appearance '*
at the commencement of the disease. On the contrary, the peculiar white-
ness of the eyes is the first symptom which guides the shepherd to the
unwelcome truth. If the bile ducts be carefully examined in the earliest
stage of the complaint, there will be found a few flukes in the duct which
conveys the bile from the gall-bladder to the intestine, but none in the gall-
bladder, and none beyond it, a sound liver, no " tubercles," no " abscesses,"
■and withal a fine fat healthy-looking carcass. If it be in the latest stage
when the examination is made, the gall-bladder will be found filled with
flukes instead of bile : and the animals will be seen making their way up

Retrospective Criticism, 99

those channels which convey the bile from the liver to the gall-bladder,
arresting it in its course, and pressing forward and enlarging the biliary
tubes. Thus, when but few of these animals have possession of this viscus,
its function is not materially impaired ; the parenchyma, or substance of
the liver, is unaltered in appearance ; the mucous channels, which convey
the bile to the gall-bladder, and from the gall-bladder to the intestines, have
not yet felt their presence, and the bile itself is secreted apparently un-
altered in quality or quantity : but here, as they live in a medium of per-
petual nourishment, they multiply to an extent incredible, and impede the
natural action of the liver and subordinate organs of the body. They
at length completely block up the conduits of bile, devouring the bile as
fast as it is secreted; spreading irritation and disease from the vessels in
which they live to the whole mass of the liver itself j and in some instances
they carve their way through the membrane which encircles them, and
escape by myriads into the cavity of the abdomen ; thus completing the
destruction of an important organ, and with it the life of the animal. These
extreme states are generally associated with dropsy and a total degeneracy
of the muscular tissue; the blood is deficient in quantity, very serous, and
almost destitute of fibrin. A correspondent (Vol. IV. p. 284.) enquires
the class and family of the fluke, in hopes o^ finding a remedy for a disease
so fatal. He will find it in the class Fermes, and order Intestina, and it is
the Fasciola hepatica. Contemplating it, as it is, as a variety of exotic
worm, it occurred to me that vermifuges, destructive to other species,
might be employed with advantage against this. But in instituting experi-
ments on the living animals, I discarded those popular remedies which
have only a mechanical action, and which could never reach the liver, for
those which operate by a wider range of influence. What I have observed
is, that there are in this class of remedies those which have little or no
effect when brought in contact with the living fluke ; and there are others
which destroy the animal immediately. To the first of those which are
inert, belong solutions of vegetable bitters, spirits of tar, and several others,
which need not be enumerated. To the second, or to those which destroy
the animal, belong solutions of mercury and the spirits of turpentine. For
example : a little calomel suspended in water, and dropped upon the animal,
quickly deprives it of life ; and a drop of the spirits of turpentine kills it
in a few seconds. The oil of turpentine is a deadly poison to the fluke.
The next consideration is, how far it may be safe to administer this medicine
to the living sheep, and what probability there is of its disturbing an animal
inhabiting the liver. With regard to the first exception, there can arise no
difficulty. The spirit of turpentine is borne readily by children, and has
been given to adults in doses of a quarter of a pint ; it is likewise applied
externally to blistered surfaces, and as a styptic to the bleeding mouths of
ruptured blood-vessels. There can be as little doubt with regard to the
second exception, when we consider the penetrating nature of this drug ;
when we know that the mere immersion of the hand in it is sufficient to im-
pregnate the urinary secretion ; nor can we doubt that its influence will be
acknowledged by an organ approximating and communicating with the sto-
mach, and by the worm inhabiting that organ. — John BrowUy M.D.F.L.S.
Boston^ Oct.^\, 1831.

Hares taking the Water. — A harbour of great extent on our southern
coast has an island near the middle, of considerable size ; the nearest point
of which is a mile distant from the main land at high water, and with which
point there is frequent communication by a ferry. Early one morning in
spring, two hares were observed to come down from the hills of the main
land towards the sea side ; one of which, from time to time, left its com-
panion, and proceeeding to the very edge of the water, stopped there a
minute or two, and then returned to its mate. The tide was rising; and
after waiting some time, one of them, exactly at high-water, took to the

H 2

100 Betrospective Criticism*

sea, and swam rapidly over, in a straight line, to the opposite projecting
point of land. The observer on this occasion, who was near the spot, but
remained unperceived by the hares, had no doubt they were of different
sexes, and that it was the male (like another Leander) that swam across
the water, as he had probably done many times before. It was remarkable
that the hares remained on the shore near half an hour; one of them
occasionally examining, as it would seem, the state of the current, and ulti-
mately taking to the sea at that precise period of the tide called slack water,
when the passage across could be effected without being carried by the
force of the stream either above or below the desired point of landing.
The other hare then cantered back to the hills. — W, Yarrell. Ryder
Street y St. James's, Nov. 7. 1831.

Hares taking the Water. — Sir, Your correspondent (Vol. IV. p. 274.)
deserves my thanks for his endeavour to set your readers right respecting the
Havergate hares, which, it seems, I have unintentionally defamed. Since I
last communicated with you, I have also seen the proprietor of the island ,•
and from what he then expressed, I confess that I did certainly " misunder-
stand " him in what he had previously told me. But on referring to the
notes which I made when I was on the island, I find that the steward asserted
that he had frequently seen hares swimming across S. V. W.'s formidable
barrier; and 1 perfectly recollect that a conversation took place on the
subject amongst the party who were then and there assembled ; at the com-
mencement of which I was almost as sceptical as your correspondent
(p. 274.). I am obliged to S. V. W. for his correction of my error
respecting the mode of colonisation of Havergate by hares : but as my letter
to you was intended to relate not an exception to, but an example of, the
habits of their race, the principal fact of the hares swimming across the
water in search of pasture, or what not, is still untouched ; and if only two
or three of the hares, which are in such abundance there (and Mr. Edwards
admitted, when I saw him last, that this might be the case), have been
found guilty of my charge against them, I suppose the judgment cannot be
set aside, although I have rashly preferred making Havergate Island a
fashionable watering-place for hares, instead of considering it, with S. V. W.,
a sort of leporine Botany Bay. I believe many of your readers doubted,
till your correspondents produced testimonies to the contrary, that snakes
would take the water ; and, notwithstanding that fact is now well esta-
blished, I dare say hundreds who do not read the Magazine of Natural His-
tory still disbelieve it : and if those who know that hares will also take
the water would give their evidence, the Havergate hares might not be
supposed so completely exempt from the use of their legs, in a way common
to most animals who possess four, as S. V. W. would wish them to be
represented. During the march of intellect, I do not see why hares should
not be allowed to swim, since we see other animals of the long-eared tribe
allowed to elect members of parliament. But I never supposed that every
hare in Havergate had got thither by the exercise of any hitherto unknown
art or accomplishment; for I imagine that they breed there as well as on
the other side of the " formidable aqueous barrier." Allowing that almost
every hare was born and educated, or transported to and naturalised in Ha-
vergate Island, Ido not see how that disproves the assertion of the steward,
upon which I commented ; nor have I ever met with any act of legislature
by which hares are prohibited from imitating, if they are so inclined, the
aquatic pastimes of Leander of old, who swam over the Hellespont, under
the influence of a passion which, if it did not equally affect all the creatures
in the universe, my esteemed friend, Mr. Edwards, might in vain attempt to
turn to account in the colonisation of his island. I have the testimony of
a Cambrian sportsman, who knows more about hares than I do, and almost
as much as S. V. W. does, to the effect that hares will swim across a stream
even more than " 200 yards in width " in search of food or shelter, and

Hetrospective Criticism, 101

that he can attest the fact in the case of the islands in the northern lakes.
If this be true, as I doubt not, the Havergate hares do not perform such
an extraordinary feat as is supposed, when it is asserted that they cross a
current, by no means " rapid," at certain stages of the tide, and certainly
not so wide as S. V. W. makes it. I wish S. V. W. had gone to Haver-
gate ; he might have seen there a more interesting thing than a multitude
of hares, and a " formidable aqueous barrier " to keep them from playing
the truant : he would have seen what, to a geologist, as he is, would
be a pleasing subject of consideration, the unfailing spring of water which
bursts up from an immense depth below the island, and which is affected
only by the changes in the level of the " barrier " aforesaid. After the
hares have been well digested, our diiFerences may be washed down by a
draught from the said spring ; but at present I must leave that phenomenon
to a more fitting occasion. The only difficulty touching the hares is in
the saltness of the water about the island; but salt is good to season
criticism withal, as well as to keep hares from becoming amenable to the
vagrant act j and, so that S. V. W. is satisfied that I do not mean to hoax
your readers, I do not care, if, in a punning humour, he says of me, in the
words of Plautus, '* Nee quisquam plus salis, plusque leporis habet." * —
W. B. Clarke. Brussels, May 13. 1831.

P.S. I have only just seen your Eighteenth and Nineteenth Numbers, or
I would sooner have requested you to correct a few typographical errors
in the letter in Vol. IV. ; such as, p. 190. Leonhard for Lemhard; p. 191.
Layham for Logham, &c. — W. B. C.

Hares taking the Water. — Your more recent Numbers have come to hand ;
and I beg to thank your correspondents for helping my unhappy Havergate
friends over the stile of S. V. W.'s criticism. I hope he will now spare
the " sauce piquante " of his facetious humour, and let my nautical hares
take their place on your editorial table, to be dissected and swallowed
according to the direction of good Mrs. Glasse, who, when she ordered that
" hares" should first" be caught" before "cooked," doubtless never dreamed
of shutting them up in an island by way of saving the sportsman the trouble
of running after them. Had the Magazine of Natural History been in
vogue then, she would probably have written, " First shut up your hares in
Havergate Island, and then you can catch them ad libituni,nnd having caught
them," &c. &c. &c. I suppose nobody believed Belgians could run, till
the other day, when they stretched their legs at Louvain ; but in these
days of reform, we shall soon hear of greater wonders than swimming
hares or flying soldiers, or of other people as easily mistaking as your ex-
insular correspondent. — W. B. C. Brussels, Oct. 15. 1831.

£ggs cojitaining Chicks not to be successfully hatched if suffered to cool. —
I am exceedingly obliged to your travelled correspondent, Mr. Waterton,
for his attempted correction of my supposed mistake about hatching,
truth being always preferable to hollow authority ; but he can know little
of me when he represents me as a book naturalist, deficient in " bog edu-
cation." (Vol. IV. p. 517.) Had Mr. Waterton, however, spent a little more
time " amongst books " than " in bogs," he might have learnt a little more
accuracy ; for his facts brought to prove my " errors " are too vague to
support any inference. If he means to say that eggs with chicks in them
can be left till they are " cold as any stone " (what degree of the thermo-
meter he does not say), and then successfully hatched, I should advise him
to take out a patent for hatching eggs without heat. No practical na-
turalist will credit the fact. Every naturalist knows that the terns, &c.,
leave their eggs for whole days uncovered ; but then it is in very warm
weather. I cannot pretend to have travelled as extensively as he ; but so
far as I have had opportunities, I have been, not a book but a field naturalist,

* " No one has more of salt [mirth] and hares [pleasantry]."
H 3

lOfi Retrospective Gritieism.

and constantly make excursions, as often as my very limited income per-
mits. With all your correspondent's opportunities, it is to be lamented
that he has hitherto published nothing respecting the economy or faculties
of animals of the least use to natural history. If he will take my humble
advice, before he publishes any thing else on hatching, he will provide him-
self with a good thermometer and a stop-watch. — ./. Rennie. Lee, Kent,
Nov. 3. 1831. [Mr. Waterton uses a watch in his observations : see p. 13.]
J%g5 wkeji covered and moistened more easily hatched (Vol. IV. p. 517.).
— Possessing but very little ornithological knowledge, and certainly with-
out having profited by the advice of Mr. Waterton, of journeying to the
East to consult the vizier of Sultan Mahmoud, learned in the language of
birds \ having, too, wandered amidst the bogs, rather in search of plants
than to study the habits of the feathered race, and therefore knowing
better the haunts of the pale pimpernel (^nag^llis tenella) and the ivy-
leaved campanula (Campanula /icderacea) than of dabchick or waterhen,
it may seem presumptuous in me to venture a suggestion respecting the
covering of their eggs by certain birds when leaving their nests. I know
not whether this habit is peculiar to water birds, or whether it is done by
all, or nearly all, of the Linnaean orders Grallae and yl'nseres, as in this
respect my knowledge is limited to the tame duck and the goose ; both of
which, particularly the latter, cover their eggs with the greatest care. May
not this be done rather to prevent the shells from becoming too much
hardened by exposure, than for the purpose of keeping them dry and warm,
as suggested by Mr. Rennie, in the passage of his work quoted by Mr. Wa-
terton ? I believe these shells are naturally hard and thick ; and it is a fact
well known to the rearers of these birds, that unless they have whilst
sitting free access to water, and can return at intervals with moistened
plumage to their nests, the embryo chicks find it impossible to break their
shelly enclosure, and consequently perish : to prevent which fatal cata-
strophe, water is sometimes sprinkled over the eggs. It would not, there-
fore, appear that moisture is injurious to the embryo ; but rather that, in the
case of some birds, at least, it is a requisite in the process of hatching. I
should, however, add, that when the eggs are thus sprinkled with water, it
is always tepid, perhaps to resemble, as nearly as possible, the degree of
heat it would imbibe from the bird whilst returning to its nest ; and that it
is also sometimes done, in very dry weather, to the eggs of the common
fowl when the process of incubation is nearly completed. Whether
doing so is, in all cases, the result of experience, and therefore right, or
whether it is only a vulgar error, I leave to others more capable than my-
self to determine. — C. P. Surrey, Kov. 1831.

Sir J. Byerley's Theory, which accounts for Geological Phenomena by the
Precession of the Equinoxes. — Sir, I have seen a very specious paper in
Vol. IV. p. 308., by an old correspondent of mine. Sir J. Byerley, alto-
gether in error in its reference to any doctrine of mine, and equally so in
the doctrine which it assumes.

It is alleged that I promulgated the idea, that the geological changes
arise from the precession of the equinoxes : but this I never taught ; for the
precession produces no physical effect, and no alteration of mechanical
power ; but merely carries back the nodes ; and, with reference to the equi-
noxes, causes the stars apparently to move forward, or in about 25,868
years to go round the ecliptic. This was not my idea : but I taught that
the geological changes arise from the advance of the line of apsides around
the ecliptic in about 20,930 years, because the extremities of that line con-
stitute the aphelion and perihelion points ; and as in these the difference
of distance is 3,000,000 of miles, so a difference of action and reaction
arises, sufficient to cause the mobile waters to respect the declination of
the perihelion, or point of greatest action. This theory I promulgated
at some length in the Monthly Magazine, so long since as 1813; and I
reprinted the same paper, as one of my Twelve Essays, in 1820.

Retrospective Criticism. lOS

Both these motions are very distinct, though they are only varied ex-
hibitions of one very simple cause ; viz. the necessary circumstance that
every body which performs an orbit, as a consequence turns once on its
own axis. The earth does so, and thereby gains on its own absolute
orbit a space equal to its own circumference, adding a forty-seventh for the
moon ; and arrives at its nodes in the equator so much sooner every year
than in the preceding, thereby creating the exact precession of the equi-
noxes. The same advance of the stars then carries forward the place of
the apses by a proportionate quantity, insomuch that the earth's circum-
ference +:jV fo^ the moon, is an exact mean proportional of the other two
quantities. The times are 20,931, 23,190, and 25,868 years ; the angles
50- r^, 55-69'", and 61-9''; and the miles in space, 23,317, 25,426, and
27,724 ; whence it appears the sun's mean distance is 93,820,000 miles.

With reference to the detailed inferences of Sir John, and his friend
Guesney, the whole is a whimsical error, arising from globe-makers locat-
ing an ecliptic for the practical purpose of determining declination ; but
the ecliptic of our terrestrial globes is not the ecliptic of nature, which
having no terrestrial locality, all the deductions of those gentlemen afe
gross errors.

When astronomers say the pole of the equator goes round the pole
of the ecliptic, they indicate no change in the oblique relations of the
equator and ecliptic, but merely refer to the succession of the constella-
tions by the precession or falling back of the nodes. This motion has no
physical effect, because it is of no consequence whatever whether one
constellation or another is vertical at the equinoxes j but the progression
of the line of apsides has physical effects, because it changes the declina-
tion of the aphelion and perihelion points by 47°, and of course the direc-
tion of the least and greatest action and reaction.

If we want to know why there are tropical productions in northern
climates, more than currents would warrant, we seem to have a cause in
the narrowing of the obliquity, at the rate of a minute of a degree in 120
years, or a degree in 7200 years. If, then, this law is constant (but I sus-
pect it is a decreasing series), 144,000 years would extend the tropics to
the Alps, and 216,000 years would extend them to Liverpool; since
which there would have been ten revolutions of the line of apsides, or
transitions of the ocean from one hemisphere to another.

The cause of the inclination of the axis of a planet to its orbit is the
inequality of its solid masses, the sphere being made up by the waters,
but not the density, and the axis passing through the centre of density.
The diminution arises from the constant force tending to bring the equa-
tor into the plane of the orbit motion, which is assisted by the action of
water, air, &c., on the solid masses.

The whole of the celestial phenomena, as I have shown in every instance,
are strictly mechanical, and subservient to the ordinary laws of mechanics,
without any attraction, gravitation, or other superstitious fancies : but my
present purpose is to rescue myself from the mistakes of Sir John Byerley
and M. Guesney. They could not have read the essays which they
quote, and probably have not seen my protest and supplement. I am.
Sir, yours, &c. — 7^. Phillips.

" Wilson, the Ornithologist,'' did not die " a short time since," as stated in
your last (Vol. IV. p. 558.), but in 1809. — J. Rennie, LcCy Kent, Nov. 3.
1831.

Mr. Alexander Wilson was born in Renfrewshire, Scotlahd, on the 6th
of July, 1776; emigrated to the United States in the year 1794, and died
in Philadelphia, of the dysentery, Aug. 23. 1813, aged 47. — John Perry.
Manchester, Nov. 23. 1831.

[The first correction dates Wilson's death 1809 ; the latter, 1813: which
is right ?]

H 4

IQ* Queries and Answers.

Art. IV. Queries and Ansiuers,

The Chough of Cornwall (Vyrrhbcorax Grdculus Temminck, Corvus Grd-
culus Lin.). — Sir, In Camden's account of Cornwall, the chough (Corvus
Graculus) is thus described : — "In the rocks underneath, and all along
this coast, breeds the Pyrrhocorax, a crow with red bill and red feet j not
peculiar to the Alps, as Pliny imagined. This bird is found by the in-
habitants to be an incendiary, and very thieving ; for it often sets houses on
fire privately, steals pieces of money, and then hides them. Can any
of your correspondents in that county inform me how this bird became
subject to the charge of arson, and whether it is really as mischievous as
above described ? — J. A. H.

Is the Woodlark of White the Alauda arborea of Shaiv ? — Sir, White, in
his Natural History ofSelborne (as published in Constable'' s Miscellany^ p. 88.,
refers to the woodlark, as in the following lines : —

" While high in air, and poised upon his wings,
Unseen, the soft enamour'd woodlark sings."

" In hot summer nights, woodlarks soar to a prodigious height, and hang
singing in the air." Is the woodlark of White the Alauda arborea of
Shaw 'i — E.H, Greenhow. North Shields, Sept. 22. 1831.

The 'Rana esculenta (^Eatable Frog) in Forfarshire. — Sir, In the late
Mr. Don's account of the plants and animals found in Forfarshire, it is
asserted by the author (p. 37.) that a few of the eatable frogs (the i?ana
esculenta of Lnmaeus) are occasionally to be met with about the lakes in
that district, although rather rare. It is much to be desired that any of
youf readers, who may have it in their power to visit that county, would
endeavour to verify this point by further enquiry and observation ; since it is
the only instance, of which I am aware, of a native locality being mentioned
for this species of frog, whose claims to a place in the British fauna have
been considered somewhat doubtful. If they should be so fortunate as to
discover the animal, either there or in any other part of the country, perhaps
they will be kind enough to make the fact known through the medium of
your Magazine. The eatable frog is distinguished from the common sort
principally by its larger size, and by the presence of three longitudinal
yellow lines on the back. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — L. J. Cambridge,
Dec.2.\^3\.

Reptiles in Ireland. — Sir, H. N. has communicated (Vol. IV. p. 269.
452.) some account of the birds and quadrupeds found at and near Lon-
donderry. Can he give me any information with respect to the reptiles
of that neighbourhood ? I have heard it asserted that there are no animals
belonging to that class to be met with in Ireland. Can he from personal
observation contradict this statement? and, if so, will he be good .enough
to add what species have occurred to his notice in that country ? I am,
Sir, yours, &c. — L. Jenyns. Cambridge, Dec. 2. 1831.

Agronomc, who has resided some years in Ireland, states (Vol. IV,
p. 357.), as the result of his experience, " There are neither toads in Ire-
land, nor snakes to eat them; neither did I ever see a mole there."

Remarkable Appendage to the Eye of Staj)hylinus hirtus. — Sir, I have
read with much interest the pleasing and instructive communications of
Mr. G. Parsons on the visual organs of insects and Crustacea. (Vol. IV.
p. 124. 220. 363.) Having lately captured a Staphylinus hfrtus, upon the eye
,of which is attached an appendage (to me) of unusual occurrence, I shall
endeavour to give as plain a description of it as possible, in the hope that
Mr. Parsons, or some of your numerous correspondentSj will inform me,
through the medium of your Magazine, if it is of frequent occurrence; of

Queries and Answers, 105

its supposed use ; or if only accidental. Fig. 38. is a front
view of the eye magnified. «, The transparent cornea,
through which is seen the numerous lenses ; b, the margin
of the eye j c, an attachment, round, and thicker than any
other part, the base of which is somewhat spread upon the
surface of the cornea ; d is about three times longer than
c, but about half as thick; e is a sort of knob attached
to the end, and half as thick again as d. Fig. 39. is a
side view of the same eye. — D. N. Worksop, July 20,
1831.

Microgdster glomerdtus, — We have had the pleasure to insert several
previous contributions to the history of this interesting little insect. That
by T. H., Vol. III. p. 50 — 52., with its figures, is rich in information re-
specting it ; but that gentleman had the misfortune to apply to the insect
the name of /chneumon or Platygaster ovulorum, which, of right, belongs
to a distinct species. Out of this misnomer arose, however, the benefit of
Mr.Westwood's scientific correction in Vol. III. p. 452., where, in connection
with that correction, valuable information is supplied on the /chneumonidas
generally. Mr. Morgan asks a question about this insect in Vol. III. p. 476.
under the title of " Flies and Butterflies ;" and Mr. Westwood replies to
this question in Vol. IV. p. 95. under the title of" Mr. Morgan's Worms."
To the same question our esteemed correspondent Mr. Bree also supplied
an answer, which, by an almost unpardonable mistake, we inserted in the
Gardener's Afagazine, vol. vii. p. 121. We know no better mode of
correcting our error than to reprint the article into this Magazine, that the
communication may follow in its due order, and be seen by such of our
readers as are not accustomed to peruse both works.

Greenish black-marked Caterpillars on Cabbages. — In your last Number
(Vol. III. p. 477.) Mr. Thomas Morgan puts a question concerning a
" number of minute eggs" enveloped in a silky substance, and apparently
produced by " the greenish and black-marked worms found on cabbages."
Presuming that by "the worms" described he means the caterpillars of
Pontia brassicae (large garden white butterfly), which I have no doubt are
what he alludes to, I feel no hesitation in referring " the minute eggs" to
the pupae of a well-known small parasite called Microgaster glomeratus
(/chneumon glomeratus of Linnaeus), of whose operations I extract the
following account from Insect Transformations y p. 61, 62., where a figure
of the insect will be found in its diflerent states, together with that of the
caterpillar on which it preys. The insect has also already been figured in
your Magazine (Vol. lit. p; 52.) under the erroneous name of Platygaster
ovulorum as shown at p. 452. of the same volume. " It must have occurred
to the least attentive observers of the very common cabbage caterpillar (Pon-
tic brassicae), that when it ceases to feed, and leaves its native cabbage to
creep up walls and palings, it is often transformed into a group of little balls
of silk, of a fine texture, and a beautiful canary-yellow colour ; from each of
which there issues, in process of time, a small four-winged fly (Micro-
gaster glomeratus Spinola), of a black colourj except the legs, which are
yellow. By breeding these flies in a state of confinement, and introducing
to them some cabbage eaterpillars, their proceedings in depositing their
eggs may be observed. We have more than once seen one of these little
flies select a caterpillar, and perch upon its back, holding her ovipositor
ready brandished to plunge between the rings, which she seems to prefer.
When she has thus begun laying her eggs, she does not readily take alarm ;
but, as Reaumur justly remarks, will permit an observer to approach her
with a magnifying glass of a very short focus. Having deposited one egg,
she withdraws her ovipositor, and again plunges it with another egg into
a different part of the body of the caterpillar, till she has laid in all about
thirty eggs. It is not a little remarkable that the poor caterpillar, whose

1 06 Queries and Answers,

body is thus pierced with so many wounds, seems to bear it very patiently,
and does not turn upon the fly, as he would be certain to do upon another
caterpillar should it venture to pinch him, a circumstance by no means
unusual. Sometimes, indeed, he gives a slight jerk ; but the fly does not
appear to be at all incommoded by the intimation that her presence is
disagreeable,"

" The eggs, it may be remarked, are thrust sufficiently deep to prevent
their being thrown off when the caterpillar casts its skin ; and, being in due
time hatched, the grubs feed in concert on the living body of the caterpil-
lar. The most wonderful circumstance, indeed, of the whole phenomenon,
is the instinct with which the grubs are evidently guided to avoid devouring
any vital part, so that they may not kill the caterpillar, as in that case it
would be useless to them for food. When full grown, they even eat their
way through the skin of the caterpillar without killing it; though it gene-
rally dies in a few days, without moving far from the place where the grubs
have spun their group of silken cocoons in which to pass the winter."

The above insect has long ago been described and figured by Albin, in
his History of English Insects, plate 1.; which figure also has been in part
exactly copied by Wilkes, in his English Moths mid Butterflies (see his plate
of the large garden white butterfly). As the Microgaster is the destroyer
of that " pest of gardens," Pontia brassicae, it may be considered a bene-
ficial insect.

Very many other lepidopterous larvae are subject to be preyed upon by
parasites analogous to Microgaster glomeratus, and thus occasionally cause
no small disappointment to the breeders of insects, who, instead of seeing a
brilliant butterfly or moth proceed from a chrysalis, as they naturally ex-
pected, are presented in its room with a number of small flies. I once
fed in confinement a caterpillar of Lasiocampa quercus Stephens (large
eggar moth), which, after having spun its cocoon, and changed to a pupa,
in due time produced a host of small ichneumons*, with long ovipo-
sitors, somewhat resembling /chneumon manifestator in miniature. The
generation of these parasites was a subject which seems to have greatly
perplexed our earlier entomologists : " mira, imo vix credibilia aut ante au-
dita," " wonderful things, nay, scarcely credible or before heard of," are the
words of Joannes Goedartius, in reference to the above Microgaster ; and
after mentioning the case of a second and still different parasite which he
reared from the same species of the cabbage butterfly, he thus expresses his
astonishment : — " Haec ipse expertus sum, et non sine admiratione obser-
vavi; quia praeter, imo contra, consuetum naturae ordinem esse videtur, ex
uno eodemque animali, diversae speciei prolem generari j atque unum idem-
que brutum, tribus diversis modis procreare; quae tamen in his erucis, ex iis
quae breviter enarravi, manifesta sunt." " These things I have myself
found by experience, and observed not without astonishment ; because it
seems beside, nay, contrary to, the usual course of nature, that from one and

* The cocoon and specimens of the ichneumons I herewith send you.
The latter, now in my possession, amount to 48 in number ; some have
probably been lost, and others, I know, have been given away to different
collectors. The variance in the size and appearance of the specimens sent,
I conclude, arises from sexual difference; the larger ones (females?) are
far the most numerous. On referring to these specimens (which I could
not exactly lay my hand on M'hen T first sent you the notice) I find they
resemble /chneiimon manifestator much less than I had supposed. This
thought has occurred to me : does each species of ichneumon invariably
keep to one and the same species of moth or butterfly ? or do many of
them attack larvae promiscuously? They are interesting creatures and
far more useful than we are commonly aware.

Qiieries and Answers. 107

the same animal an offspring of a different species should be generated ; and
that one and the same creature should procreate in three different ways ;
which yet is manifestly the case with these caterpillars, from what I have
briefly related." (See Goedartii Metamorphosis, Exper. xi.) Your cor-
respondent, therefore, it appears, is not the first person who has been
amazed and puzzled by the production of parasites from lepidopterous
larvae, though the natural history of these insects is now understood by all
who have paid the least attention to the subject. See also Insect Trans-
formations, p. 59, CO., for information on the opinions of the earlier natu-
ralists. Yours, &c. — W. T. Bree. AUesley Rectory, Sept.'iQ. 1830.

From the same invaluable contributor we have also subsequently received,
on the same subject, the following communication : —

Microgdster glomcrdtus. — Sir, Towards the end of June last I observed
a brood of the caterpillars of Pontia brassicae (large garden white butterfly),
amounting in number to twenty four, feeding on the cabbages in my garden.
I placed them in confinement ; and, as they were nearly full grown, they
soon commenced preparing for their transformations. By the 1st of July
nine out of the twenty-four had turned to the chrysalis state, and the
remaining fifteen produced the silken clusters of pupae of Microgdster
glomeratus. I mention this circumstance, not at all under the idea of its
being any thing new or extraordinary j for I am aware, on the contrary,
that it is one of every-day occurrence, and that the subject, too, has
already been alluded to more than once in the pages of your Magazines.*
The object of my present notice is merely to call attention to the enor-
mous extent to which the destruction of Pontia brassicse is effected by the
Microgaster. Nine caterpillars only out of twenty-four came to maturity
as butterflies, the remaining fifteen (i. e. nearly two thirds) were destroyed
by the parasite. Now, if the present instance is to be taken as a fair average
example of what usually occurs (and I see no reason why it may not),
we should have had this season, were it not for the ravages committed by
the Microgaster, almost two thirds more of this already very abundant
butterfly than we now have. In the course of a few seasons, supposing
no other " preventive check " to come into operation, the cabbage butter-
flies would increase in a kind of geometrical proportion ; our gardens
would soon be absolutely devoured and laid waste by the caterpillars ; and
it would scarcely be possible to walk abroad without being smothered by
the winged insects. So greatly are we indebted to this apparently con-
temptible little parasite (whose operations are unheeded by all but natu«
ralists, and of whose very existence the generality are perhaps scarcely
aware), for keeping down the increase of an insect which would otherwise
become a serious and alarming evil.

I may observe, that, though the cabbage butterflies did not come forth
from the chrysalis till July 18th to 20th, the silken pupae of Microgaster
produced swarms of the winged insect by the 12th, ready to go forth, and
commence their destructive operations on fresh broods of caterpillars. —
W, T. Bree. Alksley Bectory, July 26. 183L

B.S. August 9i The cabbage butterflies appeared to me to be unusually
abundant between London and Dartford the first week in August ; I ob-
served them even hovering about the stalls and green-grocers' shops in

* See Vol. IlL p. 52., where a figure is given of Microgaster glomeratus,
under the name of Platygaster ovulorum ; p. 452*, where the error is cor-
rected by Mr. Westwood ; p. 476., Mr; Morgan's enquiry about the insect ;
Vol. IV. p. 95., Mr. Westwood's reply to Mr. Morgan's enquiry ,• and the
preceding answer to Mr. Morgan, inserted by mistake in the Gardencr^s
Magazine, vol. vii. p. 121.

108

Queries and A?is'wers.

the outskirts of London, attracted, no doubt, by the cabbages and other
vegetables exposed for sale. — W. T. B. Dover, August 18. 1831.

P.S, Mifchamy Surrey, Oct. 10. Subsequent observation induces me to
believe that I have by no means over-rated the ravages of the Microgaster

(^g. 40.); but that what is stated
above, may be considered as no more
than an average example of its de-
structive powers. The chalk cliffs
at Dover abound with the wild cab-
bage (jBrassica oleracea), which, as
might be expected, aflbrds food to
an immense number of the cabbage
caterpillars ; and, accordingly, the
butterfly is exceedingly abundant in
that neighbourhood. The latter end
of September I saw many of the cater-
pillars creeping about the cliffs, and
undergoing their transformation ; and
I remarked that those which were
infected by the Microgaster, far ex-
ceeded in number those which would
arrive at the chrysalis state. I have
also had occasion to make the same
remark in the place from which I
date this postscript. I may add, that
on the 25th of September, I observed
at Dover many specimens of Micro-
gaster in the winged state, adhering
. c^-u , , . . ^ >n i to the puna, from which they ap-

o, Larva of the natural size^: 6, magnified. i f i • i ^i

c. Imago of the natural size; rf, magnified. peared to have just emerged J and

e, Perfect insect, natural size ;/, magnified. the Same also at Mitcham on the

^, Cocoon, natural size; A, magnified. £.,, c r\ ^ i rr\ n- ^u

i. Cluster of cocoons around the larva of V(m. oth ot October. 1 he tlies thuS pro-

tia brassicag. duced at this late season of the year,

would, no doubt, attack the later broods of cabbage caterpillars ; which
are often to be met with so late as the end of October, or even in Novem-
ber. The large and continuous supply of this little parasite throughout
the summer and autumn, i. e. so long as its services are required, is one of
those wise and beneficent provisions, which cannot but excite our admir-
ation.— W^. T,B.

An additional instance of the check to superabundant increase effected
on a species of Trichiosoma by one of the /chneumonidae, is given in the
present Number, p.

On January 1. 1831. I took a cluster of minute, dirty, pale-yellow co-
coons off the face of Kensington Garden wall, and enclosed it in paper.
On opening this paper, in the close of the summer of 1831, almost or
quite every cocoon had yielded a Microgaster glomeratus, and the little
flies were all dead in the paper. The lids of the cocoons were quite ob-
vious, as shown in the appended figure {Jig. 40. h) ; some detached,
others hinged. In the end of September, or early in October, 1831,
along the last IrV furlong of Kensington Garden v/all (beside the Bays-
water road), I witnessed nearly a dozen caterpillars of Pontia brassicge
which had just yielded, or were then yielding, both their lives and large
clusters of cocoons of Microgaster glomeratus. These cocoons were
then especially conspicuous, from their bright rich yellow hue ,• but with
the dirt of the road, and the filth, which the rain washed off the wall's face,
upon and over them, were, in a fortnight or about, so obscured as to
obfige me to search to find a cluster. On finding a cluster, I was a
little surprised to observe two or three cocoons empty, and to notice a

Queries a7id A?iswers.

109

winged Microgaster or two escaping from others. This confirms the remark
to the same effect by Mr. Bree, above; and, connected with those I cap-
tured unhatched in January, 1831, teaches that the pupae of Microgaster
glomeratus have not a determinate time for changing into the fly state.
— J. D.

Microgaster glomeratus^ a hair-like appendage to the abdomen of its larva. —
The Phalae'na ^ombyx Caja is a frequent prey to the great /chneumon
instigator (a large black species with red legs, which has a powerful scent),
and also to the Microgaster glomeratus, a small species, which leaves its
prey while yet in the larva state, and spins its little silken cocoons among
the long hairs of the Pombyx. I observed of the latter insect, Microgas-
ter glomeratus, a very curious fact during the present autumn, which, as I
cannot find it noticed by any author, I shall just mention ; hoping that some
of your readers may be able to account for it, or throw some additional
light on the subject. On opening a larva of Pontic brassicae, which from
its manner I supposed to be infested, I found about 45 of the larvae of
these parasites with their heads apparently inserted in the skin of the
lepidopterous larva as if about to make their egress ; and to the end of the
abdomen of each was appended a long transparent process, about the size
of a hair, which I could not separate from the little grubs without causing
their death. I repeated the experiment on several other larvae of Pontia
brassicae, and always with the same result. I had several times the plea-
sure of observing the grubs in the actual fact of making their exit : on draw-
ing these out I found the same appendage invariably ; but when left to
themselves, they twisted about for forty or fifty minutes, and thus released
themselves from it before they commenced their cocoons. It is possible
these beings can thus receive their nutriment, as the human foetus is known
to do, through the umbilical cord ? If this be the case, the same may be
presumed to hold good in Stylops ; the position of the larvae of that re-
markable insect being the same, with the head " immovably fixed just at
the inosculations of the dorsal segments of the abdomen" (Monographia
Apum, vol. ii. p. 111.); and thus a relation of affinity, as the cant term
expresses it, may be eventually established. I am, Sir, yours, &c. —
Edward Newman. Deptford^ Nov. 1831,

Polyommatus ArgiohiSy or Azure Blue Butterfiy^ a douhle-brooded Insect. —
Sir, In reply to Mr. Bree's query. Vol. IV. p. 477., this species is without
a doubt double-brooded. I have seen living individuals in April, and again
in September this year (1831); and, although not an entomologist, have fre-
quently admired these lovely aeronauts spreading their azure wings, and
flitting from flower to flower. — W. R. Jordan, hugehay^ Teignmouth,
Devon, Dec. 4. 1831.

Caterpillars found in a Booh {fig. 41.). — Sir, I enclose a sketch of

the appearance of the leaves of a closed book, against which, between the
boards, were found, in July last, several caterpillars in webs, of which I

1 10 Queries and Ajiswers,

should be glad to know the names and natural history, a. Two cater-
pillars J A, by caterpillars nearly concealed by fine webs j c, empty cell. —
H. London, Nov. 8. 1831.

Unojiened blossoms of Drosera rotundifolia. — Has any person ever seen
the blossoms of the round-leaved sundew (Drosera rotundifolia) fully
expanded ? It is so represented in the figure of it in the BncyclopcBdia of
Plants {[^, 233.), but in such a state it has never fallen within my observation.
Wishing to obtain a specimen of this little plant with its flowers in full
bloom, to sketch from, I have visited, at almost every hour of the day,
a bog traversed by a small rivulet, whose margin is thickly dotted with
its glowing leaves, looking as if they had indeed impaled drops of the
morning dew, to cool them through the day. I have watched it from
the time in which its slender scape first rises from amidst a bunch of cir-
cinate leaves, to that in which it forms at top into a nodding raceme ; but
never have I seen its minute white flower-buds unclose. They would
always appear as if about to open, and so lead me on in this hope, untU
the gradual enlargement of the seed-vessel within them warned me to give
up the expectation. Does this pretty lover at once of an exposed situa-
tion and of moisture, then, never expand its flowers, or does it open them
for a short time at sunrise, or when it is hidden beneath the soft twilight
of a summer night ? Perhaps some one more skilled in botany than my-
.^elf will kindly answer the question. — C. P. Surrey , Nov. 1831.

The Ore called Mundick in Cornwall. — In the additions to the history of
Cornwall is the following curious account of raundick : — " In the working
of these tin-mines there has been often found mixed with the tin another
sort of ore which was yellow, commonly called mundick ; neglected for a
long time by the tinners ; and when it was worked along with the tin, went
all away in a smoke which was looked upon to be very unwholesome : but
lately it has been tried and wrought singly by some curious undertakers,
and is found to turn to very great advantage, by affording true copper : so
that, whereas, before, the value of the tin made it neglected ', now, the ex-
traordinary return that copper makes is like to lessen the value of tin.
This mundick, as in some respects it is very unwholesome, so in others it
is a sovereign remedy. Where there have been great quantities of it,
working in the mines was very dangerous, by reason of the great damps
and unwholesome steams which, often rising on a sudden, choked the
workmen. But for this it makes amends by an effect entirely contrary;
.for being applied to any wound before it is wrought, it suddenly heals it ;
and the workmen, when they receive cuts or wounds (as they often do in
the mines), use no other remedy but washing them in the water that runs
from the mundick ore. But if it is dressed and burnt, the water in which
it is washed is so venomous that it festers any sore, and kills the fish of any
river it falls into." What is the difference between pyrites and mundick
and how many of the qualities formerly imputed to the latter are fabulous ?
^J.A.H.

Humming in the Air. — In the miscellaneous observations of White, the
celebrated and often-quoted naturalist of Selborne, published a few years
after his death by Dr. Aikin, he mentions an audible humming in the air,
which occurs occasionally on the elevated parts of the Sussex Downs,
near that beautiful village, on fine still summer days ; which he is unable
to account for. Many of your readers must have heard similar sounds
in their summer rambles. I perceive, on reference to my journal, that the
sound was heard on the 24th of June, 1830, on an open part of the forest
at Wanstead, in Essex ; and again on the Downs, Hackney, in July last.
Now, it appears to me that the sounds do not proceed from bees, as you
would naturally imagine, but from vast quantities of small winged insects,
which at this period of the year are sporting in the air, and in such
weather are more stationary; for it is to be observed, that the humming is

Obsequy. Ill

never heard except on remarkably hot and still days, and always on open
places. The sound is exactly as if a swarm of bees were in your immediate
neighbourhood, though not one may be visible. Perhaps some of your
readers can throw light on this subject. — O. Sept. 5. 1831.

Luminous Ap2^eai'ance on the Ears of a Horse. — Sir, Some years ago I
met with the following adventure ; the rationale of which I have never
satisfactorily discovered. I will describe it simply as it occurred, leaving
you or your readers to elucidate it as best you can. I was returning on
horseback one autumnal evening from a journey of about twelve miles,
when a heavy rain came on, and continued nearly all the way. Of course
I did not take it very leisurely, but came on at a brisk trot ; and what
with the rain and the exercise, my horse waxed pretty warm. When
about half wa}^, on his throwing up his head (an action usual with some
horses, when a little distressed for breath), I thought I saw a luminous
spot or two on his forehead. I examined more closely : it increased in
size, and by degrees extended itself up the ears, till the tips and edges
were distinctly marked out by a line of fire resembling phosphorus in
colour. Thus it continued for perhaps a mile, until it gradually disap-
peared ; leaving me in no small wonderment at the cause of so singular
and fairy-Hke a visitation. If you or any of your correspondents can
throw any light on the cause of this appearance, I think it may be interest-
ing to many, and I am sure will be gratifying to, Sir, yours, &c. — S. T,
Stoke- Ferrt/y Norfolk, Oct. 3. 1831.

Art. V. Obsequy. By John F. M. Dovaston, Esq. A.M., of
Westfelton, near Shrewsbury.

" Mine be a breezy hill, that skirts the down ;
Where a green grassy turf is all I crave,
With here and there a violet bestrown,

Fast by a brook, or fountain's murmuring wave;
And many an evening sun shine sweetly on my grave."

Dr. Beattie,

Sir, As this Magazine is very seldom the vehicle of verses, from the
affecting impression made on my heart by the " Wish " of poor Wilson,
the great ornithologist, recorded in the Obituary concluding your last
Volume (p. 558.), I offer you (though I had on the anvil metal more attrac-
tive) a few, written some years ago, in consequence of my having raised a
mound of earth in a grove near my residence, for the purpose of my own
grave ; whenever it shall please the Almighty to call me from this state,
where He has so very largely blessed me with happiness, to an eternal
existence, which I rationally believe will be perfectly and inconceivably
blessed. They are addressed to a near and dear kinsman, with an earnest
injunction to him, and my other friends, to see my body there deposited :
for, like the above great, good, and lamented naturalist, I had ever a
" wish to be buried in some rural spot, sacred to peace and solitude,
whither the charms of nature might invite the steps of the votary of the
muses, the lover of science, and where the birds might sing over my graved'* —
John F. M. Dovaston. Westfelton^ near Shrewsbury y November 10. 1831.

OBSEQUY.

Lay me not in the charnel ground

Where flesh and bones are mangled ,•
Nor let the sullen death-bell sound,

Nor silly chime be jangled.

112 Obsequy,

But lay me aneath my native trees,

Where the waving boughs are wreathed ;

And let no sound but the sighing breeze
Be o'er my burial breathed.

Let no proud priest in hollow slang

Blaspheme or blatter nigh me:
Nor senseless stave, nor nasal twang,

Be drawl'd or drivel'd by me.

But let the Winter Redbreast sing

His hymn of Resignation ;
Or the full-throated choir of Spring

Shout peals of Jubilation.

Let no friend's hand be flimsy-gloved.

No silk-bands sick declining:
But wear the sunny flowers I loved,

Or ivy green and shining.

Let not my name on staring stone

With loud bare lies be worded :
What little good or ill I've done

Elsewhere is safe recorded.

Some men are more than half divine.

Through every age I greet them;
And their high souls enkindle mine

Preparing it to meet them.

Then to my honest halls retire
In Mirth's high revel bright'ning;
^ Blow every pipe, strike every wire

To strains I've play'd on lightning.

Taste no cake-sop, no syrup-wine.

With visage-mockery sober;
But slice the savoury haunch and chine,

And broach my brave October.

And as with Shakspeare, Scott, or Burns,

'Mid Fairies, Ghosts, or Warlocks,
Ye wreathe the rosy hours by turns.

Repeat my glorious marlocks.

One bumper of my bright Falstaff,

Ere your gay band be parted.
To me in cordial memory quaflj

Me — Jack the happy-hearted. *

These bests obey, friend-cousin mine,

So, (when these rites betide me)
Be my bless'd Fate and Fortune thine

'Till thou art laid beside me.

John Freeman Mihuard JDovaston.
West/elton, near Shrewsbury^ May 15. 1829.

* At Oxford they still talk of " Crazy Jack of Christchurch," where
they call me (from Homer) Vti^bawoc. Krjp.

APPENDIX.

(Printed at the expense of the respective Writers. — The additional
sheet of " Original Communications," forming part of this Number, is
given entirely at the expense of Mr. Vigors, conformably with his sug-
gestion expressed Vol. IV. p. 559.)

Controversy betvoeen W, Sxvainson, Esq. F.R.S. L.S, SfCj and
N. A, Vigors, Esq, A.M. F.R.S, Sfc,

My dear Sir,
My absence from England for some weeks past has prevented me from
seeing, until within these few days, a letter from Mr. Swainson, printed in
your Vol. IV. p. 481., professing to be a reply to my letter to you of
the 20th of June last. (Vol. IV. p. 319.) I consequently have not time
to take the notice I should wish of that letter in your forthcoming Num-
ber ; more particularly as matters of greater interest than any subject con-
nected with Mr. Swainson call at this moment for my undivided attention.
I shall however resume the subject in your next publication. In the
mean time my cause will suffer nothing from the delay. Your readers have
already before them Mr. Swainson's unwarranted attacks upon me, as
advanced in his original letter of the 13th of December, 1830 ; as well as my
answers to them in my letter of the 20th of last June : and they can
judge for themselves, without any additional observations on my part,
whether I have not given a full and triumphant answer to every one of
his charges.

Mr. Swainson, in his second letter, leaves all these my answers perfectly
untouched : he resorts in it merely to the stale device of a baffled contro-
versialist, that of doggedly reiterating the assertions which had been again
and again refuted; and, flying off to subjects utterly unimportant in them-
selves, and equally irrelevant to the points at issue, exhibits, by his mis-
representations, misquotations, and the contradictions contained in his
statements and arguments, but the intemperate ebullitions of disappointed
malice. To these new points of discussion I shall address myself one by
one in your ensuing Number.

There is also a letter in your last Number (Vol. IV. p. 487.) professing
to be the production of M. Lesson. As that gentleman seems not to under-
stand the nature of the subject at issue between himself and me, but to
view it through the medium of others, certainly not much more friendly
to him than to myself, I shall take an early opportunity of representing
to him and to your readers the real state of the question.

I remain, dear Sir faithfully yours,

N. A. Vigors.
Regent's Park, Dec. 10. 1831.

Vol. V. — No. 23. [h]

[110] APPENDIX.

The Stvainsonian Controversy. — Sir, I am exceedingly averse to mingle
in the controversy between Mr. Swainson and Mr. Vigors ; but I owe it to
my own character to say, that Mr. Swainson has published extracts from my
letters to him, which I expressly told him were private : because, after I
had, in the passage published Vol. I V.p. 485., stated to him my difficulty as to
whether Mr. MacLeay's system was considered by himself and his disciples
a natural or an artificial system (thinking, as I still do, that, in matters of
science, such as this, there ought to be no privacy), I received a letter from

Mr. , saying that his remarks on my objections to the quinary system

were for my " private and individual consideration." With the next post
I accordingly wrote to Mr. Swainson, enjoining him not to publish this
opinion of Mr. — — , that he considered the system artificial which I had
thus, unconscious of wrong on my part, requested his (Mr. Swainson' s) opi-
nion about. But, without further communication on the point, Mr. Swain-
son has published this very passage. This explanation will, I hope, save
me from being " felled with a 4to volume," as M. Desmarest was afraid of.
(Vol. IV. p. 488. note.) With the above reservation, so far as I am personally
ccncemed, I care not if he publish all my correspondence about the qui-
narians, who, one and all, seem determined to mystify the world as to what
their system is ; each and all asserting that nobody, not even themselves in-
dividually, understands it. After all, is it worth understanding? I have been
abused, indeed, by more than one respectable journal for treating the
subject seriously. Controversies of this kind seem to me to do good in
the end, though they for the moment foster ill feelings : they certainly (as
in the cases in your Magazine) bring the combatants to their true level,
and tend to clear up disputed facts. — James Hennie. Lee, Kent, Nov. 3.
1831.

Swainson's Zoological Illustrations.

Sir,
Your readers and yourself, I suspect, are more than tired of the various
controversies, and somewhat angry disputations, which have of late occupied
no inconsiderable space in the pages of your Magazine. I cannot forbear,
however, adding a few words, and they shall be but a few, in answer to
Mr. Swainson's reply in your last Number (Vol. IV. p. 554.), on the sub-
ject of his Zoological Illustrations. Mr. Swainson observes that " my
arguments touching this work are built on a false foundation, and that
my inferences, consequently, are unjust." He then proceeds to state his
reasons : — First, he says, " the work is not published by subscription ;
therefore there can be no subscribers." Now, this is a truism, which, con-
sequently, no one will have the hardihood to deny. But I really am sur-
prised that Mr. Swainson should catch at such a broken reed, and attempt
to rest any part of his defence on so flimsy a foundation : for who does
not perceive that I employed the term " subscribers" as synonymous with
that of " purchasers ; " a form of expression this, continually in use with
periodical authors and editors themselves, in reference to those who buy
their works ? And be they subscribers, or be they purchasers, who are im-
posed upon, or whatever else they may be, is a matter of little or no mo-
ment J since imposition is wrong, and to be deprecated, be it practised upon
whom it may. Secondly, Mr. Swainson says, " The prospectus of the new
series stated that it would be published similarly to the old series. There

APPENDIX. [IH]

is, therefore, nothing * unwarrantable ' in the charge I complain of. The
purchasers are told at the commencement what they are to pay, and what
they are to expect." I have not the prospectus by me to refer to, and
therefore will take Mr. Swainson's word for the truth of the foregoing state-
ment : but, admitting the case to be as he says, still he appears to me to
be only shifting the o)ius one step farther back, and transferring the blame
from the author of the second series, now in the course of publication,
to the author of the first series, commenced, I believe, in 1820-1. For,
let me ask one question : Was it stated in the original prospectus or
advertisement of the first series, or even on the cover of the first number
published, that the purchasers (I must not call them subscribers) were to
be charged, 2s. 6d.y at the conclusion of each volume, for a few pages of title-
page, preface, and index ? If Mr. Swainson will tell me, on the word of a
gentleman, that such notice was given ; though even in that case the extra
charge would be, I should say, a very injudicious and objectionable mode of
reimbursing himself; — but if, I repeat, such notice, or any thing equivalent
to it, was given, then there is an end of the controversy, and I shall be
ready to acKnowledge that, in strict justice, I have no right to complain.
But if it was not, I do hold this charge to have been a very unwarrantable
transaction in the first instance, and only to be defended now by means of
a bad precedent. The case amounts to this : — Unless I greatly mistake,
the extra-charge was made without notice, and in an underhand way,
during the first or old series : at the commencement of the second or new
series, the purchasers and the public are plainly told that they are to be
treated in the same manner. To myself individually, and to every one, I
suppose, who takes the work, the extra-charge of 2s. 6d. at the end of each
volume can be but a trifling consideration in a pecuniary point of view :
but I detest any thing bordering on imposition or unfair dealing. I hear
the transaction 1 allude to universally reprehended ; the author reflected
upon, and his good faith impugned ; and I see, moreover, periodical works
in general fall into neglect and disrepute with many, in consequence of
these and similar practices. Of Mr. Swainson, as an author and a naturalist
of eminence, whose beautiful works are before the public, every one must
think well ; of his private character, too, I happen to have heard, from
those who know him, some traits which would do honour to the character
of any man : it is, therefore, the more to be regretted that such a man
should lay himself open to the imputation of shabby dealing, and that, too,
for the sake of so trifling a remuneration. Mr. Swainson will excuse me
for saying one word more, not in the spirit of angry complaint, but in per-
fect good-humour and good-will, on a point which concerns himself, per-
haps, as much as his purchasers : I allude to the irregularity in the
publication of the numbers, and to what I may call the absence of noti-
fication, or want of making such publication known. My bookseller has
a general order to supply me with the numbers as they come out. My
last number (xvi.) I received so long ago (t quite forget the exact time),
and I had so often enquired in vain tor the next, that I concluded the
work was finally discontinued. It was not till I had seen Mr. Swainson's
reply in your Magazine for November, that I was aware that Nos. xvii.
and xviii. of Zoological Illustrations were published. I then made, in
consequence, a fresh application to the bookseller, who supplied the de-
ficiency without delay. Would it not be for Mr. Swainson's advantage
rather to put forth his numbers, if possible, at regular stated periods, well
known to all concerned ; or, if the non-regular system be still continued, to
adopt some method of making his purchasers acquainted when the pub-
lication has actually taken place, so that they might make their application
accordingly ? As things now go on, the numbers come out nobody knows
when; the booksellers do not take care to procure them, without a

[1]2] APPENDIX.

renewed and special order; and it is only by accident that the purchasers,
some of them, at least, come to know when such order may be given witlr
effect. Mr. Swainson's polite message to me on the subject of returning
my copy to him through Messrs. Longman, as well as my own good wishes
for the success of his undertaking, have induced me to add these latter
remarks, in the hope that they may be of service to him.

I am. Sir, vours, &c.
Nov. 14. 1831. ' A. R. Y.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY.

MARCH, 1832.

ORDINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I. Fairy Rings. By John F. M. Dovaston, Esq. A.M.,
of Westfeiton, near Shrewsbury.

" 'T is very pregnant,
The jewel that we find, we stoop and take it.
Because we see it ; but what we do not see,
We tread upon, and never think of it."

Measure for Measure.

Sir,
The fair authoress of The Mummy well and wisely observes
that " There is an invincible feeling implanted by nature in
the mind of man, which makes him shudder with disgust at
any thing that invades her laws." To such who study and
esteem her laws, there cannot be a truth more triumphant.
Yet the unthinking mind of man not only indulges in, but
doats on, mysteries without meaning, and superstitions with-
out support. Some of these, indeed, in themselves innocent,
have, by the genius of poets, been made the vehicles of ele-
gant amusement, and allegorical instruction ; while others,
dismal and diabolical, have, by the cuiming of bigots, become
predatory on society, and blasphemous to Heaven. There is
a perverse propensity in unenlightened minds to embrace the
incomprehensible, and reject the obvious ; and millions at this
moment implicitly believe in Nixon's Prophecies, and those
of Moore's Almanack^ who smile with coarse incredulity at

Vol. V.~No. 24. i >

114 Fairy Rings.

being told of the rotatory motions of our globe, or the cause
of an eclipse : doubting what is demonstrable to a child of the
commonest capacity, and admitting what would stagger the
soundest philosopher. Like the poor woman who, receiving
her son from the West Indies, listened with satisfactory con-
viction to his marvellous narrations of rocks of sugar and
rivers of rum, but shuddered, and gave him the flattest con-
tradiction, when he averred that he had seen fishes that could
fly ; when a moment's reflection, even of her mind, would
have shown as near an affinity between fowls and fishes, as
between sugar and sand. But these good though simple souls,
" most ignorant of what they 're most assured," whose delight
is in the marvellous, did they but turn to Nature, would find
her kingdom peopled and furnished with incalculably more
wonders, ay, and true ones too (were that any recommend-
ation), and each perspicuously and indubitably indicating
almighty power, wisdom, and benevolence, than all the abor-
tions that were ever spawned from the monstrous womb of
Superstition ; even more incongruous and copious than " the
stuff which dreams are made of," — more charming, more
changing, and more enchanting. What are the tricks and
transformations of the most cunning necromancer, compared
to the metamorphoses of millions of insects, that actually, and
almost hourly, unfold before us ; from the smooth and com-
pact e^gg^ to the rough and frightful reptile, through the
curious mummy of a chrysalis, to the splendid and celestial
butterfly? Look at the myriads of monadal and polypodal
molluscous creatures that people every part of the multitudi-
nous ocean ! Minuteness, indeed, rather than an argument
against, is an augmentation of, astonishment; equal wisdom
being displayed, and wonder excited, in the articulations of
an elephant or an aphis, in the ramifications of a forest or a
fern, in the fructification of a melon or a moss ; indeed, the
last is incomparably the most intricate and interesting. Look
at the fantastic and often, at first, repulsive formations, and
apparent deformities, of these creatures of the waters, with
limbs and organs in every place and shape but what we ex-
pect, and tentacles hundreds of times longer than themselves !
W^hy, heraldry itself never came up to these, with all its hip-
pogryphs, dragons, wiverns, hydras, chimeras, and amphis-
baenas dire. Some flowers that are now brought from
abroad are so extravagantly eccentric in composition, so
magnificent in structure, and so dazzlingly glaring in colours,
that the most imaginative painter would never have thought
of limning such. Some parasites so expansive and ponder-
ous, having blossoms many feet in diametei*, exist on trailing

Tairy Rings, 115

plants utterly unable to support themselves. Nay, the mo-
mentary actions of nature are ceaseless successions of mi-
racle ; evaporation, condensation, suspension of odour, and
vibration of sound. Even poetry is surpassed ; for what
fairy grotto ever equalled the feathery crystallisations of a
frosted pane, glistening and sparkling in splendid brilliance?
Or what sparry groves or coral caves of the Nereids,
deep in the vast abysms of ocean, could ever vie with a silent
frost-forest ; heavily still, and candied with spikes of hoary
rime, spangling and blushing in the earliest beams of the
golden sun ? What gigantic palace of enchantment copes
in splendour with the columnar shafts of icicles congealed
around a winter waterfall ? or, in curious castellets, embra-
sures, and bastions, with the masses of powdery snow sifted
fantastically through a hedge into a deep lane ? Thus, though
lost in the immensity of boundless space, all breathing with
creation, the humble student of nature, one of the happiest of
earth's creatures, may exclaim with the sublime Callias (in
AnacJiarsis\ " The insect which obtains a glimpse of infinity
partakes of the greatness which overwhelms it ;" and may
cordially say with the philosopher, " Even to such an one as I
am, an idiota, or common person, no great things, melan-
cholising in woods and quiet places, by rivers, the goddesse
herself, Truth, has oftentimes appeared :" but on opening his
eyes on the pampered and artificial world (whether civil or
religious), he will feel with King Lear's honest fool, that
"Truth's a dog that must to kennel ; he must be whipped
out, when Lady, the brach, may lie by the fire and stink."
It is an unconfutable truth, that among people who have
made the greatest progress in natural history, their ideas of
the Deity have always been more refined, exalted, and sublime ;
while in the darkness of theirs where that science has slept,
or been sluggish, their notions of his nature and attributes
have been derogatory, detestable, and even diabolical.

But to my intention ; or I shall be like Bayle, who, in his
work on comets, has forgotten them, and filled his volumes with
every thing beside, eccentrically erratic : and so may I be here-
in like a stuffed toucan, all bill and no body. I was led into
this lengthened preliminary by some reflections on fairy rings,
for the cause of which I think I can account, without offence
to that airy people, for whom I confess I have a hankering
fondness, in consideration of one William Shakspeare, and
his fanciful brethren, who have given them a permanent
ascendency they long ere this had lost, but for the embalming
power of song ; so I shall proceed with all due loyalty to the

I 2

1 re Fairij Rings.

jealous King Oberon, his crown and dignity : confining my-
self to the two prevailing opinions of their canse ; the first
whereof I think I shall confute, and estabHsh the second.
Let the incredulous in philosophy continue their superstition ;
this is a harmless one : for though the fairies have long ago
left off dropping testers in our shoes, they do not pick our
pockets.

It is asserted that these rings are occasioned by centrifugal
fungi, which the ground is only capable of producing once ;
and these, dropping their seeds outwards, extend the rings,
"like circles on the water." Fungi I conceive to be the
effect, and not the cause, of these^ rings : and ground pro-
ducing fungi once, is not incapable of reproductiveness, as
the possessors of old mushroom-beds well know ; for simply
by watering, they will reproduce exuberantly, without fresh
spawn, for many years. Besides, we find all these fungi
without rings, plentifully ; but very rarely without some
visible (and never perhaps without some latent) excitement;
such as dung, combustion, decomposing wood, or weeds ;
indeed, the seeds of fungi are so absolutely impalpable, that I
have sometimes thought they are taken up with the juices
into the capillary tubes of all vegetables, and so appear, when
decomposition affords them a pabulum and excitement, on
rotten wood and leaves : and this seed is produced in such
excessive quantities, thrown off so freely, and borne about so
easily, that perhaps there is hardly a particle of matter whose
surface is not imbued therewith ; and had these seeds the
power of germinating by mere wetness alone, without some
other exciting cause, all surface would be crowded with them,
and pasturage impeded. Now, were these rings caused by
the falling of the seeds centrifugally, they would enlarge,
which they do not, but after a year or two, utterly disappear ;
though plenty of the seed may be seen to load the grass all
around. I have brought large patches of these rings into
other fields, but never found them enlarge ; and the turf I
have taken back to replace in the rings has never partaken of
their nature. Why, too, should the grass be more rank in
the rings ? one would conclude the seeds of fungi would make
it less so. Now, the exciting cause that occasions these
fungi, and deeper verdure to come up in circles, the true,
the nimble fairies —

That do by moonshine green sour ringlets make.
Whereof the ewe not bites ; whose pastime is
To make these midnight mushrooms" —

Fairy Rings. 117

I hold to be strokes of electricity : and I owe you " the
pickuig of a crow," good Mrc Loudon, for refusing, some
time ago, the admission of a gentleman's Essay on Electricity,
averring it incompatible with Natural History; when you
very well know that no part of organised nature can go on
a moment without it, and that no part of inorganised matter*
exists, not subject to its pervasive influence.

A very considerable portion of those volleyed lightnings and
rolhng " thunder, that deep and dreadful organ-pipe," which
often keep such awful coil and " pother o'er our heads," has
frequently very little or nothing to do with us; for though
a nimbus be heavily discharging its rain, cumuli are bagged
up in different heights the lobed and thin edges of which may
be often seen through the shower, tinged by the flash ; as
one cloud is giving or receiving the fluid, according as it is
more or less disposed. This may be proved by theory : but
I have very often witnessed it, safely seated on the tops of
very high mountains, in the calm and quiet sunshine and
sweet serenity of a blue sky : and some who read this article
will remember witnessing it with me on the craggy heights
of the Glissegs, and even from so low an elevation as the
Balder-stone of the Wrekin. But when a column of electric
fluid affects the earth, either ascending or descending (for
I confidently contend, in the very face of some modern theo-
rists, that it ascends innumerously oftener than it descends,
though I must not pause to prove it here), it scorches the
ground all around its edge, where there is plenty of oxygen
in contact with it, and leaves the centre unscathed, where the
oxygen is either expelled or destroyed, and so fertilises the
extremity : the consequence is, that the first year the grass is
destroyed, and the ring appears bare and brown; but the se-
cond year, the grass resprings with highly increased vigour
and verdure, together with fungi, whose dormant seeds are so
brought into vegetation, that without this exciting cause might
have slept inert for centuries. These fungi are most generally
of the ^garicus, J5oletus, or Lycoperdon, sometimes Clavaria,
genus ; I have very rarely seen any other. The fertilisation of
combustion, as agriculturists well know, though violent, being of
short duration, these circles soon disappear. They are, more-
over, generally found in open places, on hill-sides, wide fields,
and broad meadows, where lightning is more likely to strike ;
and seldom near trees or woods, which throw off, or receive

* Excepting glass, and a very few others similar ; to which, however, it
may be most easily communicated by the intervention of metal, and made
to retain it perfectly when the metal is removed.

I 3

118 Analogy between Vegetables and Animals.

the fluid silently and imperceptibly. I have indeed sometimes
seen one all round a tree, which must have been by a stroke,
from which trees are by no means exempt. I confess I have
never been able to produce a single spot by electricity:
though a learned friend and myself one summer collected and
repeatedly discharged a prodigious accumulation of battery
on the grass-plot before my dining-room window: but it
requires, to produce a very small ring, an incalculably larger
column than it is in the utmost power of man to accumulate
or discharge. The following year, however, my friend was
pleasingly amazed at beholding a noble fairy ring on the very
spot ! and was long in doubting suspense, till I informed him
I had made it with what really acted on the same principles,
— fresh soot.

I remember (though for relating it " I may chance have
some odd quirks and remnants of wit broken on me " ), when
a youth at Christ-church, some Oxford wags traced with
gunpowder, and fired on the short-mown grass of the Grand
Quadrangle in that College, in large capitals, the short mono-
syllable that so much appears to puzzle poor Malvolio in the
epistle forged by his Mistress Olivia's chambermaid ; and to
the affected indignation of the old dons, and the titillatory fun
of the merry Oxonians, the little word flourished there in
brown and green for two years ; and may be still talked of yet
in those frolicksome regions, by such humourists as,

Sir, yours,

John F. M. Dovaston,
WestJ'elton, near Shrewsburj/,
Dec, SO. ISU.

Art. II. An Essay on the Analogy between the Structure and
Functions of Vegetables and Animals. By William Gordon,
Esq., Surgeon, Welton, near Hull. Read before the Hull Lite-
rary and Philosophical Society, Nov. 19. 1830. Communicated
by Mr. Gordon,

(^Continued from p. 30.)

Having now given this brief outline of the nervous system,
I shall proceed to prove that there is a structure very analo-
gous to it in plants. In the first place, the most superficial
observer cannot but have perceived the great similitude that
there is between the pith of vegetables and the spinal cord of
animals. They are both surrounded by a membranous cover-
ing; they are in every way carefully protected from injury;
and they both send off branches in a manner precisely analo-

in their Structure and Functions. "^^ 1 19

gous : the pith gives off its medullary rays, which are distri-
buted over every part of the plant, exactly in the same way
as the spinal cord gives off the nerves, and diffuses them
through the animal body. In the second place, phytologists
have discovered that the pith contains within its cells a num-
ber of globular bodies, resembling nervous ganglia. The
number of these nervous globules bears a close proportion
to the quantity of pith. Their size and number differ very
much in different plants, and in the same plants at different
stages of their growth. In the third place, the pith is most
abundant, and the globular corpuscles found in it are the
most numerous, in plants which are young and growing ; the
period when vegetable life is in a state of its greatest vigour.
So, in infancy, when the increase of the body is most rapid,
the nervous system is proportionally larger than in adult age.
The brain, at birth, forms the sixth part of the whole body ;
but in full-grown man it forms only the thirty-fifth part.
Some have supposed that the pith is essential to the produc-
tion of the fruit ; some, that it promotes the circulation of the
sap ; and others, that it supplies the leaves with moisture for
exhalation. These opinions, however, have not been esta-
blished by facts. Indeed, from the circumstances which
I have mentioned, there can be little doubt that the pith
performs functions very similar to, if not identical with,
those of the nervous system. It appears that the one, as
well as the other, is the source of vital action : for we find
them both presenting the same form, the same arrangement,
and the same distribution; and we observe them both ex-
hibiting the greatest magnitude when the functions of growth
and nutrition are the most actively exercised, and when the
vital power, upon which these functions depend, is required
to act with the greatest energy. The other proofs of the
existence of a nervous system in plants I have drawn from
the effects produced upon them by certain poisonous agents,
and also, from their capability of preserving a certain degree
of temperature under a great variety of circumstances. Most
persons are acquainted with the deleterious effects which
prussic acid, belladonna, nux vomica, and similar substances
are capable of exerting upon the animal frame. If a large
dose of prussic acid be administered to an animal, it produces
death in the course of a few minutes. If a less quantity be
given, it occasions loss of sensibility, and other alarming
symptoms. Results similar to these are observed to take
place in plants exposed to the influence of prussic acid. For
instance, if concentrated prussic acid be dropped upon a plant,
it speedily destroys its life ; but if the diluted acid be em-^

I 4

' i"?0 Aiialogy between Vegetables and Animals

ployed, its application is followed only by impaired irritability.
Again, if a strong dose of the infusion of belladonna be given
to a man, it occasions vertigo, sickness, convulsions, para-
lysis, and death ; if the same infusion be poured over a plant,
the leaves become affected with a sort of spasmodic action :
they then grow flaccid, and in the space of a few hours the
plant dies. Now, it has been long known that the poisonous
agents which I have named do not operate injuriously upon
the animal body by destroying its fibre, but by interrupting
the functions of the nervous system. It therefore seems pretty
evident that, since they act in the same manner on vege-
tables as they act on animals, the former must, like the
latter, be endowed with nervous structure. It has been a
question among physiologists to determine in what maimer
poisonous bodies produce their specific effects upon the
animal system. On this point several opinions have been
advanced. Majendie came to the conclusion that they were
absorbed by the veins, and passed directly into the circula-
tion. Brodie supposed that they sometimes operated by
entering the circulation, and at others by acting on the sen-
tient extremities of the nerves, and, through them, on the
brain. There are others, again, who imagine that they
indirectly enter the circulation by absorption through the
lymphatics, but that, before they can exert their specific effects
upon the general system, they must be brought into absolute
contact with the brain. Morgan and Addison, in an essay
published about fifteen months ago, argue " that all fair
analogy forbids the conclusion, that at one time a poison
shall be taken up by the veins, and carried through the cir-
culation to the brain, before it produces any sensible effect ;
that at another time the absorbent vessels shall take up the
substance, and, by their communication with the subclavian
veins, be thus instrumental in carrying the specific agent into
the circulation, and thence to the brain ; and again, at another
time, the impression made upon the extremities of the nerves
of the poisoned part shall at once, by the medium of those
poisoned nerves, be conveyed to the brain, independently of
absorption either by the veins or absorbent vessels. ... As
reasonably," say they, " might it be presumed, that at one
time the sense of taste was communicated by a branch of the
fifth pair of nerves, and at another time by the salivary
ducts, as to entertain a belief that veins, absorbents, and
nerves individually performed a function of precisely a simi-
lar nature." These gentlemen, therefore, after performing
many scientific experiments, conclude, and apparently with
great correctness, that all poisonous agents produce their

in their Structure and Functions, ^ l|^l

specific effects upon the brain and general system through
the sentient extremities of the nerves, and through these
only; and that, when introduced into the current of circu-
lation in any way, their effects result from the impression
made upon the sensible structure of the blood-vessels, and
not from their direct application to the brain itself. Since,
then, it is proved, that certain poisons can act upon the ani-
mal body in no other way than by affecting the functions of
the nervous system ; and since it is further proved that they
occasion their specific effects upon the general frame through
the medium of the nerves, and through these alone ; and since
these poisonous agents produce the same injurious effects
upon vegetables that they produce upon animals ; I think we
have a right to infer that plants not only possess a nervous
system, but that they possess one very much resembling that
which exists in the animal body. Again, it is well known
that both plants and animals have the faculty of preserving
a certain degree of temperature, let that of the medium in
which they are placed be what it may. For instance, the
temperature of the interior of the stem of a tree will seldom
sink below 56^, although that of the atmosphere be not higher
than 20°. The human body never has its temperature re-
duced below 98° or 96°, not even if surrounded by an atmo-
sphere cold enough to effect the freezing of quicksilver. Now,
there can be no doubt that the heat of vegetables is produced,
in a great measure, by various chemical processes going on
within their different organs : yet it is very clear that it must
arise also from other causes ; for it continues to be generated,
though in a less degree, even in winter, when every chemical
action within the plant is almost entirely suspended. Some
have supposed that at this season it is transmitted, through
the roots, from the earth in which the plant is growing. But
if this were true, how does it come to pass that we sometimes
find the water immediately surrounding the roots and their
spongioles in a frozen state, while that within them and within
the stem is quite fluid ? and how comes it to pass that plants
situated on the side of rocks, whose roots, from the deficiency
of soil, are almost as much exposed as their branches, possess
as much warmth within the interior of their stem, when the
thermometer stands at 30° below zero, as those whose roots
are deeply buried in the earth? Animal heat, like that of
plants, likewise depends very much upon a chemical process,
viz. the combination of the oxygen of the air with the carbon
of the blood, forming carbonic acid. It is not, however,
derived entirely from this source. The experiments of Brodie
and of Sir E, Home show that it is to a considerable extent

122 Analogy between Vegetables and Afiimals

generated and maintained by the action of the nervous
system.

Since, then, the temperature of the animal body is found to
be produced and supported by the functions of the nerves;
and since it is ascertained that plants possess the property of
always maintaining, under a great variety of circumstances,
a certain degree of temperature ; and since this property can-
not altogether be referred to any mechanical or chemical
process, we are bound, I think, to conclude that plants are
endued with a nervous structure.

I have already stated that the higher classes of animal
beings are furnished with no less than five distinct sets of
nerves. The lower orders of animals possess a much fewer
number, and some of them have no nerves at all. Dr. Darwin,
from what he has advanced in his works, seems to infer that
vegetables possess as many classes of nerves as are found to
exist in animals of the most complicated and perfect struc-
ture. No one, I think, can agree with the opinion of this
fanciful but learned and amusing writer. It would be waste
of time to show that plants have neither nerves of percep-
tion nor of volition, nor nerves of sight, hearing, taste, or
smell. To endow them with these, would be to render them
at once intelligent beings. On an attentive consideration of
the subject, however, it appears to me that some vegetables
are endued with nerves of touch, with respiratory nerves,
with nerves of motion, and with ganglionic nerves.

The sense of touch resides in the nerves distributed to the
skin. It is the only one which appears common to animals.
It has been ascertained that zoophytes, many of the mollus-
cous and articulated worms, and the larvae of various kinds of
insects, are not endued with vision ; and the sense of hearing
is found to be wanting in several species of insects and mol-
lusca. Many animals appear not to possess the faculty of
taste ; and it is doubtful whether there is an organ of smell
in cetaceous tribes, in amphibials, and in worms. There is
no animal, however, not even the most simple infusory ani-
malcule, in which the sense of touch does not exist. In con-
sequence of the sense of feeling being so universally present
in the animal kingdom, physiologists have considered it to be
the most simple and least elaborate state of the sensorial
power, or that subtle fluid which is secreted by the nervous
system, and constitutes the principle of sensation and motion.
There is likewise reason to conclude that from the material
of touch all the other senses are produced, by the operation
of peculiar and appropriate organs upon it. Thus, the optic
nerve converts it into vision, the auditory nerve modifies

m their Stnicture mid Futictions, 123

it into hearing, and the gustatory and olfactory nerves into
taste and smell. The sense of touch, besides being distri-
buted over the whole surface of the body, possesses, in the
mammal class of animals, and in some birds and insects, its
peculiar local organ, as well as the other senses. In man, the
local organ of touch resides in the tongue, the lips, and the
points of the fingers : in the horse it exists in the nose and
tongue, and in the pig it is situated in the snout. We find,
however, that those animals which possess a local organ of
touch of a complete and perfect kind, and capable of receiv-
ing the most delicate impressions, are all furnished with a
brain and a complicated nervous system ; but in the inferior
tribes of animal beings, as the mollusca, shell-fishes, and the
larvae of insects, in which the sense of touch has no local
organ, but is merely diffused over the general surface of the
body, the brain is entirely wanting, and the nervous system
is of a less perfect conformation. From the most satisfactory
evidence, then, it seems that the faculty of general touch or
feeling, or common sensation as it is called, is the most simple
and common of all the senses ; and that the presence of a
brain is not necessary to its existence, for it is as strikingly
displayed in the lowest orders of animals as it is in those
which are the most highly organised. Now, it has been ob-
served that temperature produces upon plants effects which
cannot be referred to any of its mechanical or chemical ope-
rations ; we can therefore scarcely entertain a doubt that they
are furnished with organs adapted to receive the impressions
of heat and cold ; in other words, that they possess the nerves
of the sense of touch. Whether plants are susceptible of
the pressure of contiguous bodies is less certain ; but even if
they be not so, still the possibility of their possessing nerves
of touch is not destroyed or diminished ; for it seems that
these nerves are divided into two distinct sets, because it is
found that we possess a sensibility to temperature, and also
a sensibility to resistance, and these two bear no proportion
to each other. Cases are not wanting in which individuals
have been sensible to the impressions of temperature, and yet
have been insensible to those of resistance ; others, again, have
occurred where sensibility to resistance has remained perfect
and sound, while that to temperature has been completely
lost. Since, then, the sensations of heat and cold reside in
nerves distinct from those which form the seat of the sens-
ations of resistance, it is clear that a living body may possess
the former, and yet be destitute of the latter ; so that, although
plants may be incapable of feeling the resistance of bodies
placed in contact with them, they may nevertheless be sensible

JSI? Analogy between Vegetables and Aimnals

to variations of temperature. The function of respiration
is partly under the control of the will, and it is partly inde-
pendent of it. For instance, we can breathe slowly or
rapidly, and, to a certain degree, we can stop the breathing.
The principal agent concerned in carrying on the respiratory
function is the diaphragm, which is a large muscle separating
the chest from the cavity of the abdomen. I have already
mentioned that no muscle will contract, unless its fibres be
excited by the application of some stimulus. Tlie involuntary
muscles contract in consequence of the stimulus being made
to act directly upon them. The heart, for example, is stimu-
lated by the contact of the blood, the stomach by that of the
food, and the bowels by the chyle and faeces. The stimulus
by which the action of the voluntary muscles is produced
is volition, which is sent to them from the brain through the
medium of the nerves. Now, it is clear that the diaphragm
does not, like the heart and stomach, contract, owing to any
substance being immediately applied to it Neither do its
ordinary contractions proceed on the principle of voluntary
muscles ; for volition is exercised upon it only very occasion-
ally. It must, therefore, have some stimulating power trans-
mitted to it from some source which does not supply the
other muscles. Now, it is well known that the diaphragm,
besides having nerves of sensation and volition whence it
derives its voluntary power, receives likewise a particular
set of nerves from the middle of the spinal cord. These
nerves are independent of the brain. They are incapable
of communicating perception or volition, and have only the
power of exciting the fibres of the diaphragm to contract.
It is by the peculiar agency of these nerves that the con-
tractions of the diaphragm can go on without our con-
sciousness. Hence it is that we are able to breathe during
^leep, and during insensibility from disease. On the banks
of the Ganges there grows a plant called the J/edysarum
gyrans [Desmodium gyrans Decandolle'], The leaves are
continually in motion. These motions are connected with
the function of respiration ; and we are informed by Sir
J. E. Smith that they will continue when the plant is
removed from the light and every external agent. From
this circumstance, they must depend upon some internal
cause ; and to what cause can we refer them, except nervous
power, or something very closely similating it ? There seems,
I thiiuk, very little difference between the motions of the
leaves of the Desmodium gyrans and the ordinary contrac-
tions .of the diaphragm. They both originate from some
internal stimulus : they are both concerned in the function

in their Structure and Functions. 1 25

of respiration, and both are unconnected with the faculties of
perception and volition. It therefore appears that the Des-
niodium gyrans is endued with something like respiratory
nerves, upon the agency of which the motions of its leaves,
which resemble the contractions of the diaphragm, entirely
depend.

The motions of the animal body are divided into volun-
tary and involuntary. Now, it appears that volition, or the
act of the mind which forms the will, is the chief stimulus of
the nerves distributed to the muscles of voluntary motion ;
for instance, if we wish to move a limb in a certain direction,
provided the nerves and muscles belonging to it are in a sound
state, it is immediately moved. In this case, a certain state
of the brain is induced by volition : this is conveyed to the
nerves, which, acting on the muscles, cause them to contract,
and to move the limb. But the nerves which place the
muscles under the guidance of the will can act upon and
produce contractions in these muscles, without themselves
being operated upon by volition. This is proved by the act
of deglutition in new-born infants, which depends on certain
muscular motions. These motions cannot, of course, be re-
garded as voluntary ; because there must always be present
in the mind a motive before voUtion can be exercised ; and
since there does not exist in infancy any mental feelings
whatever, we are bound to conclude that deglutition at this
period of life is an involuntary but a spontaneous act. That
the muscles of deglutition, during infancy, act in consequence
of the stimulating power of the motive nerves, there can be
no doubt ; because they perform their office independently
of all external circumstances, and because they cease to per-
form it if the nerves ramified upon them be divided, or dis-
abled by disease. It is clear, from what has been said, that
the motive nerves can act on the muscular fibre, whether they
themselves be acted on by volition or not. In the former
case, i. e. when acted on by volition, they produce what is
termed voluntary motion ; in the latter case, i. e. when not
acted on by volition, they give rise to spontaneous motions.
It is well known that the pistil of the tiger lily will bend,
first towards one stamen, and then towards another, until it
has inclined towards them all. Each stamen of the 5axi-
fraga* will in regular succession approach the pistil, and
as soon as it has shed its pollen over it, it retires, and
gives place to another. These movements do not depend

* Which, or every species ? Parnassia palustris also instances the same
phenomenon. — J,D, .

126 Analogy het^ween Animals and Vegetables

upon any mechanical arrangement, and they are perfectly
unaffected by any external causes. We must, therefore,
refer them to some internal stimulus. I must confess that I
can see no difference between the muscular motions employed
in the act of deglutition during infancy and the motions of
the pistil of the tiger lily, or of the stamens in the <Saxifraga.
Both are produced by some internal impulse ; both take place
in the absence of all external agents ; both are exercised
without volition ; and both are performed to accomplish an
important effect in the economy of each. Since, then, it has
been shown that the former depend upon nervous action, the
latter, which closely resemble them, ought to be referred to
the same agent. On these grounds, I conceive that plants, as
well as animals, are possessed of nerves of motion.

I have already made some observations on the ganglionic
nerves : these, 1 remarked, were incapable of communicating
perception or volition. Their office is to unite the whole sys-
tem together, and to regulate the functions of the stomach, the
liver, and other organs of digestion : in fact, they preside over
all those functions which maintain, or are essential to, life.
These nerves are capable of receiving impressions from their
appropriate stimuli, but of these impressions the mind is
never conscious : the food, for example, acts upon the sto-
mach, but we never feel its action ; the lacteals absorb the
chyle and transmit it to the veins, and the blood-vessels cir-
culate the blood to every part of the system, but of neither
of these operations have we any consciousness. The sensi-
bility, therefore, of the ganglionic nerves is of that kind
which is unaccompanied with perceptibility. When, how-
ever, the functions which depend upon them proceed with
proper vigour and regularity, the result is a universal feeling
of energy, elasticity, and pleasure, which is considered and
called the state of perfect health : but when, on the contrary,
the ganglionic nerves, and the functions over which they
preside, become disordered, the delightful feelings which we
denominate health entirely disappear, and others of a most
distressing character occupy their place j a general languor
and inertness seize upon the body, and the mind grows weak,
unsteady, and irresolute, and in more severe cases it often
becomes so irritable, gloomy, and desponding, as to render
life a state of almost insupportable wretchedness. It has been
stated by some writers, with regard to vegetables, that their
growth, and the other changes which take place in them, are
the effect of mechanical and chemical actions alone ; so that,
from this view, the life of plants would seem to consist in a
physical and not a vital connection of their different functions :

■ i7i their Structure and Functions, 127

in other words, it is inferred that plants can have no gan-
glionic nerves by which their conservative functions are in-
fluenced. This, probably, might have been the case, if the
functions of plants had consisted merely of circulation and
respiration; but we cannot for a moment suppose it to be so
when we consider that the vegetable functions consist of ca-
lorification, of absorption, of assimilation, of sanguification,
of secretion, and of generation. If these functions require
to be regulated and connected together by a circle of nerves
in animals, surely they require the same bond of union and
regulating power in plants, in which they are conducted on
the same principle as in the animal system. The most con-
clusive proof that vegetables are endowed with ganglionic
nerves is their power of generating heat. Sir E. Home
has discovered that animal heat is not produced by every
part of the nervous system, but only by the ganglionic
nerves. He observes that the temperature of those ani-
mals which possess only a brain, or some part equivalent
to it, never exceeds that of the medium in which they
are immersed; while those whose temperature is always
found greater than that of the medium which surrounds them
are supplied with ganglia. The ganglionic nerves appear then
to possess the specific faculty of generating heat. If then
animals derive their power of creating heat from the gan-
glionic nerves, it is to be presumed that vegetables, which are
endued with the same power, obtain it from the same source.
There can be no doubt, therefore, (and it is more consistent
with our ideas of the general harmony of nature to suppose,)
that plants possess gangUonic nerves, and, of course, that
peculiar sensation dependent on these nerves ; not sensation
with perception, but that state of consciousness, or pleasurable
feeling, to which the name of health has been applied. The
conjecture which I have advanced respecting the existence of
ganglionic nerves in plants has been corroborated by the testi-
mony of M. Brachet. This eminent physiologist, in a work
entitled Recherches Eocperimentales sur les Fonctions du Systeme
Nerveux Gangtionnaire, &c., which was only for the first time
made known in England in January last (six weeks after my
paper had been read to the Hull Literary and Philosophical
Society), expresses the belief that vegetables have the faculty
of sensibility, and that this sensibility is derived from a gan-
glionic system of nerves, which, by a variety of experiments
and arguments, he has satisfactorily proved they possess.

Sir J. E. Smith, too, conceived that plants are endued with
sensation, although he makes no allusion to their possessing
either ganglionic or any other kind of nerves. In his Intro-

128 Bough Notes of a Tour to the LaJc£s

ductiofi to Physiological and Systematical Botany^ says this
elegant and learned writer, " as they (vegetables) possess
life, irritability, and motion, spontaneously directing their
organs to what is natural and beneficial to them, and flourish-
ing according to their success in satisfying their wants, may
not the exercise of their vital functions be attended with some
degree of sensation, however low, and some consequent
sliare of happiness ? Such a supposition accords with all the
best ideas we can form of the Divine Creator, nor could the
consequent uneasiness which plants must suffer, no doubt in a
very low degree likewise, from the depredations of animals,
bear any comparison with their enjoyment on the whole."

Art. III. Rough Notes made during a Pedestrian Tour to the
Lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland^ in the Spring of 1830.
By G. and H.

{Continued from Vol. IV. p. 302.)

Sir,

In forwarding you a continuation of the " Rough Notes made during a
Pedestrian Tour to the Lakes," I am anxious of offering some explanation
and apology to your readers for intruding into your pages papers having
little of interest and less of elegance to recommend them.

They were not composed by the parlour fire, for the amusement of the
public, but penned by my pedestrian friend and myself, in the little Cum-
berland inns, whilst surrounded by the scenery which they faintly attempt
to describe, when the long march of the day or the anticipated climb of
the morrow demanded some such quiet evening's amusement. Under such
circumstances they were more likely to bear the stamp of truth than the
polish of authorship and leisure : inclination or ability has since been
wanting to dress up our crude notices for the refined taste of your critical
readers.

Our object in sending them for insertion, however, is not the gratifica-
tion of such, but the humble hope that other of your subscribers, blessed
with an equal share of health and strength, but having, like ourselyes, but
little leisure and little cash, may be induced to devote them to this most
enchanting tour of the north-western counties. Here they will meet with
scenery surpassing the most highly coloured painting of fancy; and should
they discover one new plant, or capture one new insect, we shall feel amply
repaid for the trouble of transcribing, and care little for any anathema that
our homeliness may draw down upon us.

Your obedient servant,
Kennington, November 15. 1831. G.

Wednesday, May 19. 1830. — Upon looking out this morn-
ing, our prospects remained clouded, and " the mighty Hel-
vellyn " was still enveloped in impenetrable fog. We were
resolved, however, to reach Ambleside to-day, and were

of Cumberland a7id Westmoreland, 1 29

unwilling to pursue any route except that which lay over the
mountain's brow. To have accomplished it without a guide
would have been next to impossible ; we therefore sent for the
village Vulcan, w^ho acted in this capacity, and, upon consult-
ing him as to the practicability of finding our way through
the mist, he encouraged the attempt, and agreed to conduct
us. Full of anticipation, we set out without loss of time, and
having pursued the course of the stream, with the beauties of
which we had been so much pleased yesterday, for about two
miles, crossing it, we began our ascent by a narrow sheep-
walk, the view gradually opening to our delighted eyes as we
advanced, and ere we reached the ridge of mountains upon
which are the bases of Striden-edge and Catchedecam (by
either of which we might ascend Helvellyn) the prospect had
become the most extensive we had ever seen. Having enjoyed
it for a short time, we directed our course towards Striden-
edge, determining to make our ascent in that direction, it
being by far the most grand, though at the same time the
most dangerous and difficult. Here we were very soon
enveloped in thick mist, which quite obscured all distant ob-
jects from the sight, except at intervals. Continuing, however,
slowly to follow our guide, amongst rocks and stones (passing
round some, and over others), the footing gradually became
more steep and uncertain, until, for some distance, the pass
did not exceed 2 or 3 ft. in width ; whilst at other times we
were compelled to work ourselves along with the assistance of
our hands and feet, whilst striding across this terrific wall.
The appearance of the mountain was indeed at this time
very grand : on our right was a slope towards the Red Tarn,
of about 500 ft. ; and on our left a perpendicular steep, of
nearly 2000 ft., of rugged pointed rocks, bristling up in every
direction, and rendered more interesting by the momentary
and uncertain peeps we obtained of them between the passing
clouds. After some steep climbing we arrived at the summit
of our present wishes, by standing on the top of this noble
mountain, of which we had in vain attempted to get a sight
for the two previous days ; nor did we now see it till actually
cUmbing up it. The mist continued impenetrable, and the
temperature at this elevation was extremely cold. Our time,
which had it been clear would have been occupied in enjoy-
ing the views, was now put to other account, and we were
glad to keep ourselves warm by turning over the loose stones
which cover this mountain's top in search of insects, being
unwilling to omit any favourable opportunity of capturing
them. I was therefore employed to my heart's content, and
took in great plenty Carabus glabratus and Helobia Gyllen-
VoL. V. — No. 24. K

1 30 Rough Notes of a Tour to the Lakes.

hahV. On arrivinf^ at the highest point we had dismissed our
guide, he having first pointed out to us the direction of Kes-
wick ; and now we heard his sepulchral cries far below us,
sounding through the mist, as though they came from an
inhabitant of some other world, and reechoed again and again
by the surrounding mountains. The clouds, which had pre-
viously bounded our horizon, now cleared away as if by
magic, and opened to us here and there the most superb and
distant glimpses. At one moment we could distinctly see
Ulswater, all bright and sunny; at another, Thirlmere, and
part of Bassenthwaite Water : this sort of enchantment lasted
but for a few seconds, and the next all was again dark, cold,
and gloomy as before. I was very anxious to meet with the
nest and eggs of the dotterel [Charadrius Morinellus], which I
was informed had been found here, but we only saw the bird
as it was wheeling round us in the fog. I took, in climbing
the mountain, six species of the genus Carabus in abundance,
namely, glabratus, cancellatus, hortensis, arvensis, catenulatus,
and violaceus. We had seen all we could, and therefore be-
gan our descent towards Keswick. The ascent of the moun-
tain, on the western side, is very easy, and gives any one but
a poor idea of the grandeur of Helvellyn. We made our way
in the direction of Thirlmere, and penetrating the cloud, which
only capped the mountain, we were soon gladdened and
warmed by the sun's rays. Thirlmere is a pretty little lake,
and very narrow in the middle, where it is crossed by a bridge.
Before approaching very near to it, you gain the road to Kes-
wick ; and, whilst quenching our thirst at the little " honest
alehouse " at the foot of the mountain, the Lake Tourist
coach passed us. This day's march was concluded by a five
miles' walk to Keswick, the near approach to which is very
imposing. Descending into the town, you catch a full view of
Derwentwater, and its wooded banks and islands, backed by
lofty mountains on your left; whilst the tamer scenery of Bas-
senthwaite, connected with them by a flat cultivated plain, and
Skiddaw rising high over all, bound your prospect to the
right. We took up our quarters in the travellers' room of
the Royal Oak Inn, and having made all the toilet our
knapsacks would allow, and refreshed ourselves by a plen-
teous potation of tea, we sallied forth to explore the town
and neighbourhood. Our first enquiry was for the residence
of the poet laureate, and we had pointed out to us a house
exhibiting as little of taste, or of the picturesque, as you can
well imagine. In passing through the street, we were annoyed
by a host of idle lounging fellows, yclept guides and boat-
men; a set of scoundrels, who drink all summer, and live

Account of the Smia $yndActyla, 131

npon the parish in the winter. Dispensing with their prof-
fered services, we went to Hutton's Museum, more to see the
man than any other curiosity ; but he being, unluckily, from
home, his daughter, an elderly woman, who has lived some
years at St. Petersburgh, showed it to us. What principally
attracted our attention was a large stuffed dog (very much
resembling a wolf, and having its propensities), which some
years ago spread devastation amongst the flocks of sheep in
this neighbourhood : a reward was offered for its destruction,
and, though hunted by men and dogs, its caution and swift-
ness eluded their pursuit, till it was found asleep under a
hedge, and in that position shot. Our next visit was to the
Lake of Derwent, where we rowed ourselves round the pretty
islands which adorn its glassy bosom, and were serenaded
by several herons soaring at a great height above us. [See
Vol. IV. p. 279.] In Keswick the number of notices of " bo-
tanist and mineral dealers " amused us, and we went to roost
highly delighted with the glorious treat which this day's walk
had afforded us. EL

( To be continued.)

Art. IV. Account of the Simia synddctylay or Ungha Ape of
Sumatra; the Anatomy of its Larynx, 8^c. Sfc. By George
Bennett, Esq. F.L.S. M.R.C.S. &c. &c.

During a visit to the Island of Singapore, on the 1 3th of
November, 1 830, a male specimen of this interesting animal was
presented to me by E. Boustead, Esq., a mercantile gentleman
resident at that island, and who evinced a great and laudable
desire of forwarding pursuits of natural history. The animal
had been recently brought by a Malay lad from the Menang-
kabau country, in the interior of Sumatra. The Malays at
Singapore called this animal the Ungka; by Sir Stamford
Raffles it has been stated as bein^ called the Siaman^ amonff
the natives ; and the Ungka ape is described by F. Cuvier as the
Onko, in his splendid work on theMammalia, plates v. and vi. On
making enquiry among the Malays at Singapore, they denied
this animal being the Siamang, at the same time stating that
the Siamanoj resembled it in form, but differed in havinor the
eyebrows and hair around the face of a white colour.
' The iSimia syndactyla is described and figured in Dr.
Horsfield's Zoology of Java ; but the engraving does not give
a correct idea of the animal. The following sketches {fgs. 42,
43, 44.) are taken from drawings made by Charles Landseer,

K 2

1352

Account of the Simia synddctyla,

Esq., from the original, which is now deposited in the British
Museum.

The object of this communication is to relate the habits
of the animal as observed on board the ship Sophia during the
passage to England. The measurement of the animal was as
follows : — From the os calcis to the vertex of the head, 2 ft.
4 in. ; span of the arms, 4 ft. ; length of the arm, from the
axilla to the termination of the fore finger, 1 ft. lO^in. ;
length of the leg, from the groin to the os calcis, 11 in.; length
from the xiphoid or ensiform cartilage to the crest of the
pubis, 7J in.

The teeth are twelve in each jaw ; four incisors, two canine,
and six molares : in the upper jaw the canine were placed
widely apart from the last incisor, giving an appearance as if

42 a tooth was deficient :
this did not occur in
the lower jaw. The
teeth of the animal
were in very bad con-
dition. The colour
of the animal is en-
tirely black, being
covered with stiff
hair of a beautiful jet
black over the whole
body ; the face has no
hair, except on the
sides as whiskers,
and the hair stands
forward from the
forehead over the
eyes ; there is little
beard. The skin of the
face is black; the arms
are very long, the
radius and ulna be-
ing of greater length
than the os humeri ;
the hair on the arm
runs in one direc-
tion, viz. downwards,
that on the forearm
upwards; the hands
are long and narrow,
fingers long and tapering; thumb short, not reaching farther
than the first joint of the fore finger; the palms of the hands

or XJngJca Ape of Sumatra,

133

and soles of the feet are bare and black ; the legs are short in
proportion to the arms and body ; the feet are long, prehen-
sile, and, when the animal is in a sitting posture [Jig, 42.), are
turned inwards, and the toes are bent. The first and second toes
are united (except at the last joint) by a membrane, from which
circumstance he has derived his specific name. He invariably
walks in the erect posture when on a level surface ; and then
the arms either hang down, enabling him sometimes to assist
himself with his knuckles ; or, what is more usual, he keeps his

arms uplifted in an
erect position, with
the hands pendent
(Jig, 43.)j I'eady to
seize a rope and
climb up on the
approach of any dan-
ger, or on the ob-
trusion of strangers.
He walks rather
quick in the erect
posture, but with a
waddling gait, and
is soon run down
if whilst pursued
he has no opportu-
nity of escaping by
climbing. On the
foot are five toes,
the great toe being
placed like the thumb
of the hand; the form
of the foot is some-
what similar to that
of the hand, having
an equal prehensile
power ; the great toe
has a capability of
much extension out-
wards, which enlarges
the surface of the foot
when the animal
walks ; the toes are short, the great toe is the longest. The
eyes of the animal are close together, with the irides of a hazel
colour : the upper eyelids have lashes, the lower have none :
the nose is confluent with the face, except at the nostrils,
which are a little elevated ; nostrils on each side, and the nose

K 3

134«' Account of the Simia synductyta,

united to the upper lip : the mouth large : ears small, and re-
sembling the human, but without the pendent lobe. He has
nails on the fingers and toes ; he has two hard tubercles on
the tuberosities of the ischium, but is destitute of a tail or
even the rudiments of one.

His food is various : he prefers vegetable diet, as rice,
plantains, &c., and was ravenously fond of carrots, of which we
had some quantity preserved on board. He would drink tea,
coffee, and chocolate, but neither wine nor spirits : of animal
food he prefers fowl to any other ; but a lizard having been
caught on board, and placed before him, he took it immedi-
ately in his paw, and greedily devoured it.

The first instance I observed of its attachment was soon
after the animal had been presented to me by Mr. Boustead.
On entering the yard in which he was tied up, one morning,
I was not well pleased at observing him busily engaged in
removing his belt and cord, at the same time whining and
uttering a peculiar squeaking noise. When loose, he walked
in the usual erect posture towards some Malays who were
standing near the place ; and after hugging the legs of several
of the party, he went to a Malay lad, climbed upon and hug-
ged him closely, having an expression, in both the look and
manner, of gratification at being once again in the arms of him
who, I now understood, was his former master. When this
lad sold him to Mr. Boustead, whenever the animal could get
loose he would make for the water-side, the Malay lad being
usually on board the prau in which they had arrived from
Sumatra ; and the animal was never taken until, having
reached the water, he could proceed no farther. On sending
him aboard the ship (Sophia), he on arriving, after rewarding
his conductor with a bite, escaped, and ascended the rigging ;
but towards the evening he came down on the deck, and was
readily secured. We sailed from Singapore for England with
him on the 18th of November.

He is not able to take up small objects with facility, on ac-
count of the disproportion of the size of the thumb to the
fingers. The metacarpal bone of the thumb Jias the mobility
of a first joint ; the form of both the feet and hands gives a
great prehensile power, fitted for the woods, where it must
be almost impossible to capture an adult animal alive.

Under the throat is a large black pouch, a continuation of
the common integument, and very thinly covered with hair :
this pouch is not very visible when undistended : it is a thick
integument, of a blackish colour and corrugated appearance.
It extends from the under part of the chin to the throat, and
is attached as low down as the upper part of the sternum,
and is also attached above to the symphysis of the lower jaw:

or U/igka Ape of Sumatra. 135

its use is not well known, but it is not improbable that it is an
appendage to the organ of voice. Sometimes, when irritated,
I have observed him inflate the pouch, uttering at the same
time a hollow barking noise * ; for the production of which,
the rushing of the air into the sac was an adjuvant. The in-
flation of the pouch was not, however, confined to anger ; for,
when pleased, he would purse the mouth, drive the air with
an audible noise into the sac ; or when yawning, it was also
inflated ; and in all instances he would gradually empty the
sac, as if he derived a pleasure from it. When the sac has
been distended, I have often pressed on it, and forced the
air contained within it into the mouth, the animal not evincing
at the time any sign of its being an annoyance to him. When
uttering the barking noise, the pouch is not inflated to the same
extent as when he yawns. It has been stated in an American
publication, that the use of the air-sac is for a swimming-
bladder. It may be said in refutation (if the assertion is not
too absurd to be refuted) that the animal being one day washed
in a large tub of water, although much frightened, did not
inflate or make the least attempt to inflate the sac. He is
destitute of cheek-pouches as a reservoir for food.

When sleeping, he lies along either on the side or back,
resting the head on the hands, and seemed always desirous of
retiring to rest at sunset; but would often (I suppose from
his approximation to civilisation) indulge in bed some time
after sunrise ; and frequently when I awoke I have seen him
lying on his back, his long arms stretched out, and, with eyes
open, appearing as if buried in deep reflection. The sounds
he uttered were various : when pleased at a recognition of his
friends, he would utter a peculiar squeaking chirping note ;
when irritated, a hollow barking noise was produced ; but
when angry and frightened, or when chastised, the loud gut-
tural sounds of ra, ra, ra, invariably followed. When I ap-
proached him for the first time in the morning, he greeted me
with his chirping notes, advancing his face at the same time,
as if intended for the purpose of salutation. He had a gravity
of look and mildness of manner, and was deficient in those
mischievous tricks so peculiar to the monkey tribe. In only
one instance did I experience any mischief from him, and that
was in his meddling with my inkstand : he had a penchant for
the black fluid, would drink the ink, and suck the pens, when-
ever an opportunity offered of his gratifying this morbid pro-
pensity. He soon knew the name of Ungka, which had been

* When the barking noise was made, the lips were pursed out, and the
air driven into the sac, at the same time that the sound was uttered, the
lower jaw was also a little protruded.

K 4

136 Account of the Siinia synddctijla^

given to him ; and would readily come to those to whom he
was attached when called by that name. His temper was mild,
and not readily irritated ; his mildness of disposition and play-
fulness of manner made him a universal favourite with all
on board.

When he walks in the erect posture, he turns the leg and
foot outwards, which occasions him to have a waddling gait
and a bow-legged appearance. He would walk the deck,
being held by his long arm, and then had a resemblance to a
child just learning to walk. He has an awkward manner of
drinking, by which the liquid is much wasted : he first applies
his lips to the liquid, throwing the head up, which may in
some degree be attributed to the prominency of the lower jaw ;
and if the vessel in which the liquid is contained should be
shallow, he dips the paw into it, holds it over the mouth, let-
ting the liquid drop in. I never observed him lap with the
tongue when drinking ; but when tea or coffee was given to
him, the lingual organ was carefully protruded for the purpose
of ascertaining its temperature.

He usually (on first coming on board), after taking exercise
about the rigging, retired to rest at sunset, in the maintop,
coming on deck at daylight. This continued until our arrival
off the Cape, when, experiencing a lower temperature, he
expressed an eager desire to be taken in my arms, and in-
dulged by being permitted to pass the night in my cabin, for
which he evinced such a decided partiality, that on the return
of warm weather he would not retire to the maintop, but was
always eager to pass the night in the cabin.

He was playful, but preferred children to adults ; he be-
came particularly attached to a little Papuan child (Elau, a
native of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group) who
was on board, and who, it is not improbable, he may have in
some degree considered as having an affinity to his species.
They were often seen sitting near the capstan, the animal
with its long paw around her neck, lovingly eating biscuit
together. She would lead him about by his long arms ; and
it was very amusing to see him running round the capstan
pursued by or pursuing the child ; he would waddle along at
a rapid pace, sometimes aiding himself by his knuckles ; but,
when fatigued, would spring aside, seize a rope, and ascend
a short distance, safe from pursuit. In a playful manner he
would roll on deck with the child, displaying a mock combat,
pushing with his feet (in which action he seems to possess
great muscular power), entwining his arms around her, and
pretending to bite ; or, seizing a rope, he would swing towards
her, and, when efforts were made to seize him, would elude

;, m- Ungka Ape qfSimatra^k 137

the grasp by swinging away ; or he would drop suddenly on
her from the ropes aloft, and then engage in various playful
antics. He would play in a similar manner with adults, but
always seemed to have a preference for children. If an attempt
was, however, made by the child to play with him when he
had no inclination, or after he had sustained some disappoint-
ment, he usually made a slight impression with his teeth on
her arm, just sufficient to act as a warning that no liberties
were to be taken with his person ; or as the child would say,
*' Ungka no like play now." Not unfrequently, a string being
tied to his leg, the child would amuse herself by dragging the
patient animal about the deck ; tired, however, of such prac-
tical jokes, without having himself any share in the fun, he
endeavoured to disengage himself and retire : on finding his
efforts fruitless, he would quietly walk up to the child, make an
impression with his teeth on one of the members that were the
nearest, soon terminate the sport, and procure his liberty.

There were also on board the ship several small monkeys,
with whom Ungka was desirous of forming interesting " con-
versaziones," to introduce a social character among them, to
while away the tedious hours, and to dissipate the monotony of
the voyage; but to this the monkeys would not accede, and they
all cordially united to repel the approaches of the " little man
in black," by chattering, and sundry other hostile movements
peculiar to their race. Ungka, thus repelled in his endea-
vours to establish a social intercourse, determined to punish
them for their impudence: when they again united to repel
him, by chattering and divers other impudent tricks, he
seized a rope, and, swinging towards the nearest, seized his
" caudal appendage," and hauled away upon it, until the agi-
lity of the monkey obliged him to relinquish his hold. But it
not unfrequently happened that he made his way up the rigging,
dragging the monkey by the tail after him, and if he required
both hands to expedite his ascent, the tail of his captive would
be passed into the prehensile power of his foot. These ludi-
crous scenes were performed by Ungka with the most perfect
gravity of countenance ; having no caudal extremity himself,
he knew that he was free from any retaliation. As this treat-
ment was far from being amusing to the monkeys, they after-
wards either avoided him, or made so formidable a defence
on his approach, that Ungka was obliged to refrain from in-
dulging himself in " tale-hearing,^^ He had, however, such
an inclination to draix) out tails^ that, being obliged from
"peculiar circumstances" to relinquish those of the monkeys,
he cultivated the friendship of a little pig that ran about the
deck, and, taking his tail in his hand, endeavoured, by fre-

138 Account of the Simla syndactyla^

quent pulling, to reduce it from a curled to a straight form ;
but all his efforts were in vain : although piggy did not
express any ill-feeling at his kind endeavours. On the din-
ner being announced by the steward, he invariably entered
the cuddy, took his station near the table, and " scraps were
thankfully received." If when once at dinner he was laughed
at, he vented his indignation at being made the subject of
ridicule, by uttering his peculiar hollow barking noise, at the
same time inflating the air sac, and regarding the persons
laughing with a most serious look until they had ceased,
when he would quietly resume his dinner. He disliked
confinement, or being left alone ; when shut up, he would
display great ebullitions of temper, but would be perfectly
quiet when released. At sunset when desirous of retiring to
rest, he would approach his friends, uttering his peculiar
chirping note, beseeching to be taken into their arms : his
request once acceded to, he was as difficult to remove as
Sinbad's Old Man of the Sea, any attempt to remove him
being followed by violent screams ; he clung still closer to
the person in whose arms he was lodged, and it was difficult
to remove him until he fell asleep. His tailless appearance,
when the back is turned towards the spectator, and his erect
posture, gives an appearance of a little black hairy man ; and
such an object might easily have been regarded by the super-
stitious as one of the imps of darkness.

The limbs, from their muscular and strong prehensile power,
render the animal a fit inhabitant for the forest {^Jig. 44.) ; en-
abling him to spring from tree to tree with an agility that we
have frequently witnessed him display about the rigging of
the ship ; passing down the backstays, sometimes hanging by
his hands, at others by walking down them in the erect posture,
like a rope-dancer, balancing himself by his long arms ; or he
would spring from one rope at a great distance to another,
or would drop from one above to another below. Being
aware of his inability to readily escape pursuit when running
on a level surface, his first object, when about to make an
attack, was to secure a rope, and swing towards the object
he was desirous of attacking ; if defeated, he eluded pursuit
by climbing out of reach. He was very fond of sweatmeafs,
dates, &c. ; some Manilla sweet cakes that were on board he
was always eager to procure, and would not unfrequently
enter the cabin in which they were kept, and endeavour to
hft up the cork of the jar : he was not less fond of onions,
although their acridity would cause him to sneeze and loll out
his tongue; when he took one he put it in his mouth, and eat
it with great rapidity. He could not endure disappointment.

or Vngka Ape of Sumatra, k.

139

and, like the human species, was always better pleased when
he had his own way ; when refused any thing, he would dis-
play all the ebullitions of temper of a spoiled child, lie
on deck, roll about, throw his arms and legs in various

directions, dash every thing about that might be within his
reach, walk about, repeat the same scene as before, uttering
during the time the guttural notes of ra, ra : the employment
of coercive measures during the paroxysms reduced him in a
short period to a system of obedience, and the temper was in
some degree checked. He had not an unapt resemblance to
a spoiled child, who may justly be defined as papa's pride,
mamma's darling, the visiter's terror, and an annoyance to all
the living animals, men and maid servants, dogs, cats, &c., in
the house that he may be inhabiting.

The position of the feet, when the animal walks, is turned
outwards, and the great toe, which has a capability of great

lAsO Account of the Simia syndactylay

extension, is spread out wide, giving a broader surface to the
foot ; when he walks, to use a nautical phrase, " he sways the
body," and stepping at once on the whole of the under surface
of the foot, occasions a pattering noise, like that which is heard
when a duck or any aquatic bird walks on the deck of a ship.

When the weather is cold, he is seen huddled together,
loses all his lively and playful manner, and sleeps much dur-
ing the day : on the return of warm weather, it imparts life to
the animal ; his spirits revive, he resumes his gambols and
sportive gaiety. Although every kindness was shown to him
by the officers and crew, and sweetmeats were given to him
by them, he would not permit himself to be taken in the arms,
or caressed familiarly by any person on board during the
voyage, except the commander, Mr. Hays the third officer,
and myself; all those, in particular, who wore large bushy
whiskers he particularly avoided.

When he came at sunset to be taken into my arms, and
was refused, he would display a paroxysm of rage, but that
being unsuccessful, he would mount the rigging, and hanging
over the deck on which I was walking, would suddenly drop
himself into my arms.* It was ludicrous to behold the ter-
rified looks of the animal, and half-suppressed screams, if his
finger was taken towards a cup of hot tea, as if to ascertain its
temperature. He would frequently hang from a rope by one
arm, and, when in a frolicksome humour, frisk about, shut
his eyes, and have a resemblance to a person hanging and in
the agonies of death.

When strangers came on board, he approached them at
such a distance as he considered consistent with his ideas of
safety. The only lady who had honoured him with her notice
was one who came on board from a ship (Euphrates) we spoke
at sea; he evinced, however, no partiality to the gentle sex,
and would not permit her to caress him : whether it was the
bonnet, which was ala mode of 1828, or other portions of the
lady's dress, that excited his indignation, I know not ; but he
was evidently not eager to become acquainted with her : as
she appeared at first timid of approaching the animal, it may
in some degree have occasioned the cunning brute to keep
up the feeling.f

* The account of the orang-utan given by Dr. Abel, in the Narrative of a
Journey in the Interior of China^ accords with the habits of this animal, and
the comparison is very interesting.

-|- I was acquainted with a lady in Ceylon, who, having been bitten by
a cockatoo, always evinced great terror at the approach of one which was
kept in the house : the bird appeared aware of it ; for, when he saw the lady
approach, he would flap his wings, elevate his crest, shriek out, and at the
same time pretend to pursue her, at which she ran away quite terrified.

or XJngka Ape of Sumatra, 141

On the 19th of March (1831) we had reached the latitude
45° 4r N. and longitude 24° 40' W. ; the animal seemed
(although clothed in flannel) to suffer much from cold, and
he was attacked by dysentery : his attachment was so great,
that he would prefer going on the deck, in the cold air, with
the persons to whom he was attached, to remaining in the
warm cabin with those whom he did not regard. On the
24th he became much worse, his appetite gone, and he had a
dislike of being moved ; the discharge from the bowels was
bilious, mixed with blood and mucus, sometimes entirely of
blood and mucus, with a putrescent odour : the breath had a
sickly odour, mouth clammy, eyes dull and suffused ; drank a
little water occasionally, and sometimes a little tea ; he gene-
rally remained with his head hanging on the breast, and limbs
huddled together; he would, however, when yawning, inflate
the pouch as usual. On the 29th we had prevailing easterly
winds; and he was daily sinking until the 31st of March,
when he died, in latitude 48° 36' N., longitude 9° V W.

On examination, the thoracic viscera were healthy ; the
spleen was healthy, of small size, and lobulated at one extre-
mity ; the liver was large and healthy, the difference in size
between that organ and the spleen was considerable in com-
parison with the relative proportions of those organs in the
human subject; the gall bladder contained a small quantity
of dark, thick, and viscid bile ; some of the mesenteric glands
were enlarged, some being of a white, others of a dark colour.
On laying open the duodenum, it was found to contain a
quantity of mucus slightly tinged with bile ; the colon and
caecum were full of liquid bilious faeces mixed with mucus,
and several small ulcerated patches on the inner surface,
and a dark spotted appearance at others ; the rectum also
contained similar faeces, but mixed with a curdy matter, and
there were several large patches of ulceration on the inner coat,
more particularly near the termination of the gut : the kidneys
were healthy, on the right the capsula renalis was large, but
none was visible on the left; the bladder was quite empty, the
inner surface scarcely moist. The animal had been castrated,
but the spermatic cord terminated in the scrotum in two small
oval substances, rather larger than peas ; the sacrum and os
coccygis were similar to those parts in the human subject.
The communication of the larynx was examined ; the epi-
glottis was only indicated by a slight obtuse angular rising ; the
sacculi laryngis three eighths of an inch in the long diameter,
one eighth in the short; their margins were well defined,
continued forwards below the body of the os hyoides into a

142 Remarks on Incubation,

membranous sac situated internal to the external thick one.
This animal has one common sac, and thus differs from the
orang-utan, which has two ; the lungs also differ from those in
the orang-utan * in being subdivided on each side, the right
lung having three, the left two lobes, as in the human sub-
jectf The extremities of the bones of the animal were car-
tilaginous.

London, January, 1832.

Art. V. Remarks on Incubation, in reference to those expressed
in Professor Rennie's Edition of^^Montagus Ornithological Dic-
tionary.'' By Charles Waterton, Esq.

" I most earnestly entreat my readers to weigh ewery fact, and rigidly
scrutinise every inference." (See the Professor's "Use of System,"
p. xxi. in said Dictionary.)

The Professor tells us, in the last Number (p. 101.) of
this Magazine, that " the terns, &c." (this " &c." is very
vague) " leave their eggs for whole days together." In his
" Plan of Study," he informs us that the careful dabchick
covers her eggs with a quantity of dry hay, mind, reader, to
keep them *marm till her return.

Now, the dabchick lays her eggs at the same time of the
year that the terns lay theirs. The eggshells of the dabchick
and of the tern are of the same thickness, as near as may be,
and their contents are precisely of the same nature. If, then,
the ^^<g of the dabchick requires to be covered in order to
keep it warm when the bird leaves the nest, that of the tern
requires the same precautionary measure, for the same reason.
Or, vice versa, if the egg of the tern be left uncovered for
whole days together, then, by a parity of argument, the egg
of the dabchick might be left uncovered for whole days toge-
ther. But the Professor tell us expressly, that, if the dabchick
quits her eggs for a moment without covering them, their
vicinity to moist plants, or to water, would certainly prove
fatal to the embryo chicks.

From these two extreme statements of the Professor, first,
that the terns leave their eggs uncovered for whole days to-
gether ; and, secondly, that the dabchick covers her eggs with
dry hay, if she leaves the nest for a moment, as their vicinity

* See Mr. Owen's dissection of the Orang-utan, in No. I. of the Proceed-
ings of the Zoological Society of London.

\ The larynx and a portion of the ulcerated intestine have been depo-
sited in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.

in reference. to tJiose in Rennie^s "'Montagu,^* 143

to moist plants or to water would certainly prove fatal to the
embryo chicks ; I come to the following conclusion, viz. that
the Professor knows nothing at all about the true reason why
the dabchick covers her eggs when she leaves the nest. Where-
fore I here enter my protest against this part of the Pro-
fessor's "Plan of Study," as it cannot be of the least use to
natural history. On the contrary, it will do harm. It is a
mere exhalation of his own brain ; a kind of " Will o' the
wisp," which will lead his pupils into the swamp of error.
No doubt his intentions are good ; but it would be well to bear
in mind " tantum ne noceas, dum vis prodesse videto." *

I must here remark that the Professor tells us that it is in
very warm weather when the terns leave their nests ; still, It
somehow or other so happens that during their breeding
season the weather is often very raw and cold, and that there
are sometimes hail- storms, and even snow.

In p. 101. the Professor asks if I mean to say that eggs,
*with chicks in them^ can be left till they are " cold as any
stone ?" I mean to say no such thing, nor have I said any
such thing. See my remarks. Vol. IV. p. 518. When I in-
troduced " cold as any stone," I particularly alluded to the
time of laying, hefoi^'e the bird begins to sit j and I asked the
question, viz. if the new-laid eggs be covered with hay for the
purpose of keeping them warm, during the absence of the
bird from the nest for at least four and twenty hours. I have
no need to attend to the Professor's suggestion of a thermo-
meter and a stop-watch. He who thinks it worth while to
read my remarks in Vol. IV. p. 517., on Professor Rennie's
new edition of Montagu, will there see that I took up the
pen for no other purpose but to expose the Professor's plau-
sible, though at the same time very erroneous, theory, that
the careful dabchick covers her eggs every time she leaves
the nest with a quantity of dry hay, to keep them warm till her
return.

From the dabchick's nest in the bog, the Professor conducts
his pupils to a carrion crow's nest, of course on the top of a
tree. He says, " The carrion crow, for example, who lines
her nest with wool and rabbit's fur, always covers her eggs
with a quantity of this before leaving her nest, no doubt for
the same reason that the dabchick employs hay."

Where, in the name of carrion, I ask, has the Professor
learned that this crow covers its eggs with wool and rabbit's
fur ? Before I enter into the demerits of this whimsical state-
ment of the Professor, I must here inform the reader that
even waterfowl, whose nests are, comparatively speaking, but
* '^Beware of doing an injury whilst you wish to do good."

144? Remarks on Incubation.

loosely put together, do not take any part of the lining or in-
side of them to cover their eggs when they leave their nests.
You may see these birds, from time to time, while on the nests,
stretching out their necks, and pulling towards them little bits
of grass and drifting sedges ; these they place all around them,
on the outer rim of the nest. They cover their eggs with
these materials when they leave the nest, and not with any
part of the lining.

Now, if, as the Professor states, the carrion crow covers her
eggs when she leaves the nest, how is she to act ? Is she to
fly off to the rabbit and the ram, for a fresh supply of fur and
wool ? Or is she to have recourse to the lining of the nest,
which has been most beautifully formed and arranged with
nice art before she began to lay ? In this case she will be
driven to the necessity of undoing part of the lining every
time she leaves the nest, and on her return she must con-
trive to replace it before she gets upon her eggs ; for, after
she has once got upon them, you will see by the contour of
the nest that she can do little or nothing more to the lining
under her. On resuming her seat, she certainly does not
push the fur and wool (our carrions here never use rabbit's
fur), with which the Professor tells us she covers her eggs,
to the outer edge of the nest, as the waterfowl do the bits of
grass and sedges with which they cover their eggs ; because,
if this were the case, we should see these materials lying there
when we ascend the tree. Now, I always know to a certainty
that the carrion crow has forsaken her nest for ever, if I find,
on mounting up to it, that any part of the lining is displaced
and put on the outer rim. Some unlucky schoolboy or
other enemy has been there, and either robbed it of its trea-
sure, or done to it that by which the crow instinctively knows
that it is neither safe nor profitable to return to it.

The real fact is, that the Professor's specious theory about
the carrion crow covering her eggs with rabbit's fur and
wool, for the same reason that the dabchick employs hay,
simply comes to this, viz. that the carrion crow never covers
her eggs at all, when she leaves the nest.

Last year, I had fifteen carrion crows' nests in the park ;
some of them, by the by, upon very high trees. In the many
visits which I paid to these nests, I could never find the eggs
covered, though I looked pretty sharply after them, and
pretty often into them.

Here I will stop for the present, and merely observe, that one
day, on looking into the new edition of Montagu^ and casting
my eye on that part of the Professor's "Plan of Study" where
he [p. xvii.] remarks that " most authors occasionally indulge

Migration of the Sxmfts m 1 8 3 ] . 145

in fancying facts, instead of proving them by observation," I
could not help thinking that this remark of his would prove
a formidable weapon in the hand of any body who would
wish to make a home thrust at the Professor of Natural His-
tory in King's College in the City of London.

Charles Waterton.
Walton Hall^ Jan. 7. 1832.

Art. VI. Dates and Remarks relative to the Migration of the
Swifts in the Year 1831. By the Rev. W. T. Bree, M.A.

Sir,

Happening to be under the necessity of making a journey
last summer from this place, through London, to the Kentish
coast, about the time at which the swifts take their departure,
I had a favourable opportunity of noticing the appearance or
non-appearance of these birds in the different parts of the
country through which I passed. A plain statement of the
result of my observations may, perhaps, prove acceptable to
such of your readers as, like myself, take an interest in watch"
ing the migration of our jy^irundines. The swifts appeared to
have taken their departure early from this part of the country
( Allesley, Warwickshire). I could only observe a single one
here on the 31st of July : none had been seen by me for some
days previous. I left home on the 1st of August; and, as I
journeyed south-eastward, could perceive no swifts all the way
till I came to Stony Stratford in Buckinghamshire (a distance
of forty-one miles), where two appeared; and two more the
same day, at Brickhill, one stage nearer to London. Many
were to be seen at Crayford and Dartford in Kent, and near
Gravesend, on the 4th of August ; and in the evening of that
day, I observed a very large assemblage of them sporting
high in air, and uttering their " joyous scream " over the pre-
cincts of the latter town ; they were to be heard again at the
same place early in the morning of the 5th of August ; and
the same day, a few more appeared in one or two places be-
tween Gravesend and Dover. At Dover I could observe none
till the 7th of August, when some five or six or more in a
pack were to be seen and heard as they dashed round the
ancient towers of Dover Castle, in the morning ; and a few
more in the evening, over the town and basin. I then lost
sight of them entirely until the 14th of August; on the even-
ing of which day, three, or perhaps more, appeared again

Vol. V. — No. 24. l

146 Migration of the Swifts in 1831.

about the castle. These, I had calculated, would have been
the last I should see for the season ; but, to my surprise, a
pair of swifts presented themselves to my notice on the 10th
of September * (none having been observed in the mean
time between that day and the 14th of August), hawking
about with other Hirimdines just before dusk (a little after
six o'clock), between the Marine Parade and the town of
Dover.

From the above facts, it should seem that the swifts for the
most part retire from the interior parts of our island consider-
ably earlier than they do from places near the sea-coast ; for
they had entirely disappeared in Warwickshire by the 1st of
August or before, as well as from the parts of Northampton-
shire through which I passed on that day ; while they were
still found in considerable force at Dartford, Gravesend, &c.,
on the 4th and 5th of August ; and some at Dover, on the 7th
and 14th of that month. The pair that I observed on the 10th
of September, there can be no question, were on their passage
to more southern latitudes ; and, like so many other travellers,
had, no doubt, very recently arrived at Dover, where they rested
for the night, with a view to embark for distant climes on the
following morning. For it should be remembered that not
one was to be seen at Dover for the space of nearly a month
previously; and 1 looked for them on the 11th, and several
following days, in vain.

It may not be out of place here, to mention that I am in-
formed, on the authority of Mr. Le Plastrier of Snargate
Street, Dover, that some years ago he discovered a swift
alive, among the bells in the tower of St. Mary's church at
Dover, in the winter, I much regret that my informant was
unable to state the month in which this unusual fact occurred ;
but he is quite sure that it was in the winter, and that the bird
was a swift. I am also assured by the same intelligent observer,
that he recollects many years ago a similar instance of a swift
being found in the winter among the bells of Stepney church.
Mr. Le Plastrier's father had the care of the church clock;
and on various occasions, when he went to repair or wind it
up, was in the habit of being attended by his son, then a boy,
who was an eye-witness of the above fact.

* This is the latest date at which I ever myself observed the swifts with
us, save one, and that was the 15th of September, 1817, at Penzance;
where and when two or three were seen under precisely similar circum-
stances : a few birds only, associating with the swallows and martins,
observed just before dusk in the evening, on the sea-coast, remaining for
one day only or part of a day, and appearing after an interval of a month
or more had elapsed without a single one having been visible. (See *' Table
of earliest and latest appearances of ITirundines," Vol. II. p. 19. note f)

Barred Woodpecker (Picus mhior), 147

I here present you, in a tabular form, with the first and last
appearances of the swallows and martins for the year 1831: —

First seen. Last seen.

Swallow - April 11.* (at Allesley.) October 17. (atMitcham, Surrey.)
Martin - May 6. (Do.) October 15. (Do.)

Swift - May 13. (Do.) Sept. 10. (Dover.)

I had no opportunity of observing the migration of the sand
martin this year.

I am, Sir, yours, &c.
Allesley Rectory, Nov, 29. 1831. W. T. Bree.

Art. VII. The Little, or Barred, Woodpecker [Vicus minor L.).
By John F. M. Dovaston, Esq. A.M., of Westfelton, near
Shrewsbury.

Sir,
After all that has been so perspicuously said in the
very able and admirable review of The British Naturalist
in your last Number, about this surprising and minute bird
(p. 63.), I have yet a few remarks to add : particularly as I
observe that authors collect the scattered scraps sprinkled
throughout our Magazine, to further the augmentation of
their respective histories; which shows the great utility of
these short communications from divers places. This bird
is a very frequent, but uncertain, visiter to the w^oods
around my residence here; but never fails in April to asto-
nish me with his prodigiously loud churr on the ranpikes of
trees ; which, the atmosphere being favourable, may be heard
more than a mile. White elegantly observes, that " where-
ever there is love, there is music." Now, if this, as the judi-
cious reviewer opines, be a " love-note " (and many insects
use similar amatory serenades), the bird has a taste consonant
to that of the magnanimous and delicate Bully Bottom, who
averreth that he has "a reasonable good ear for music,"

* The dates above recorded relate only to what fell under my own
observation. Swallows, I am told, were seen by others at Allesley on the
10th of April. I am informed also, by an attentive observer of these birds,
that he saw three martins [sand martins ?], late in the evening, flying over
the reservoir near Daventry, on the 2.3d of March ; and one swift at Lea-
mington, on the evening of the 1 st of May ; and also that two swallows were
seen near Coventry so late as the 28th of October. 1 may state, too, that
my friend the Rev. Thomas Whately of Cookham, in Berkshire, informs
me, that,.in the year 1830, he saw swallows (^irundo rustica) in that neigh-
bourhood, on the 22d of March j and this year ( 1831), on the 8th of April*

L 2

148 Barred Woodpecker (Ptcus minor).

when he preferred "the tongs and the bones" to the
seraphine harmonies of the Fairy Queen and her elves. It
much resembles the snorting of a frightened horse, but
louder and longer. 1 have, indeed, occasionally heard this
churring in autumn; but very infrequent, and far feebler:
nor does this militate against its being a signal of love ; as
Nature often, with a fading though sunny smile, flings many
a vernal glance and expression into the serene features of
Autumn. My friend Bowman long ago suggested this was a
love-note, as our conversations were startfully interrupted by
it, amid the forest-like woods of Erddig, near his residence
at the Court. The acute and accurate Ray, with his amiable
integrity, doubted the mode of its performance, by his repe-
tition of the word vel (either). His emphatic words are well
worth quoting — -"Avis haec, vel rostro suo in rimam ar-
boris inserto et celerrime hue et illuc agitato, vel creber-
rima percussione, sonum efficit crepitantem clarum, qui e
longinquo exaudiri potest," * Now, I can assure your readers,
from the closest observation, that the bird does not slurr his
beak round a hole or fissure ; but, with inconceivably rapid
percussion, vibrates it against the tree. The motion is so
quick as to be invisible, and the head appears in two places
at once ; like that of the ivory ball on the end of a long and
very elastic whalebone, used for the playing on the pretty
instrument of unequal bars called the staccato : and it is
surprising, and to me wondrously pleasing, to observe the
many varieties of tone and pitch in their loud churring, as
they change their place on boughs of different vibration ; as
though they struck on the several bars of a gigantic staccato.
"When actually boring they make no noise whatever, but
quiet and silently pick out the pieces of decaying wood ;
which, lying white and scattered beneath on the ground and
plants, leads the eye up to their operations above. They
have several favourite spots, to which they very frequently
return. Their voice is a very feeble squeakj repeated
rapidly, six or eight times, ee ee ee ee ee. They bore numer-
ous and very deep holes in decayed parts, where they retire
to sleep early in the evening ; and, though frequently aroused,
will freely return. Whatever be the purpose of this enor-
mous noise, they certainly do very nimbly watch, and eagerly
pick up, the insects they have disturbed by it. The white

♦ " This bird produces a clear clattering sound, which may be heard a
great way off, either by its beak inserted into the chink of a tree, and most
rapidly agitated to and fro, or by excessive thickly-close percussion.'*
(^Ray's Sj/nopsis Avium, p. 43. 8vo, 1713.)

Lepidopterotis Insects considered indigenous, 14-9

bars on the back are very beautiful. They fly in jerks like
their congeners ; always alight on the side of a tree ; and the
cock has a very rich crimson spot on his head. Your in-
genious correspondent, the Rev. W. T. Bree, with his never-
failing felicity, calls him the pump-borer. (Vol. I. p. 301.)
Indeed, the communications of this gentleman, on whatever
subject, display such versatility of knowledge and elegance of
taste, that tliey always elicit the most cordial admiration ofi ;

Sir, yours, &c.
Westfelton, near Shre'wsburi/, John F. M. Dovaston.

January 21. 1832.

Art. VIII. On the Claim of certain Lepidopterous Insects talen
in England to be considered as indigenous. By W. A. B.

That most interesting branch of natural history relating
to the geographical distribution of organised existence, is
making that progress towards perfection which the daily
discovery of new forms, and the most accurate discrimination
of specific characters, can alone effect. In this, as in all other
departments of science, till settled down on the firm and im-
mutable basis of evident truth, we may allow ourselves the
aid of theory as of a scaffolding to assist in the erection of a
pile which is to endure for ever ; cautious, at the same time,
how we argue upon facts stubbornly at variance with our pre-
conceived ideas ,* resistance to which may close our eyes to
conviction, that might eventually have burst upon our view
with the clearness of noonday.

The observations of our distinguished countryman, Mr.
Stephens, in his admirable Illustrations of British Entomology,
on S'phin.r Carolina, quinquemaculata, Drur<rV, and some
other American lepidopterous insects that have been captured
at large in England, have occasioned the following strictures
upon what appears to me very inconclusive reasoning against
their right to rank as indigenous productions of this " our
favoured isle." In venturing these my opinions, in opposi-
tion to so great an authority, I am actuated by no wish to
dogmatise, but, by challenging enquiry by others, to clear up
what I am incompetent singly to decide.

Mr. Stephens seems to consider it as an established prin-
ciple, that a species predominant in one quarter of the
globe cannot with propriety be looked upon as aboriginal
when found at large in another, although the frequency of
its occurrence might otherwise sanction the opinion of its being

L 3

150 Claim of ceiiain Lepidopteraiis Insects

indigenous. His views of natural distribution appear on this
point as limited as are the boundaries of land and water,
within which he would confine the species to whom he denies
the rights of citizenship, on the plea of their being interlopers
escaped from a foreign land. He puts out of the question
the important influence of temperature, and the numerous
aberrations of Nature from her own general laws ; deviations
so numerous, as generally to leave our most specious theories
terribly at fault.

A man of such extensive information on all subjects con-
nected with natural science as Mr. Stephens, must, no doubt,
be aware that vegetable and animal forms of specific identity
are often produced in very distant regions, to the exclusion
of those immediately contiguous or intervening; in which
ease, be it observed, there is for the most part a decided cor-
respondence, or at least approximation, in temperature, soil,
elevation, or other requisite condition, between the two coun-
tries. Circas^fl! lutetiana is found in the moist vallejj^s of Ne-
paul*, as in our own climate : many of our plants are truly
indigenous to the northern parts of Ameiica. Wahlenberg
remarks, in Flora Sueczca, upon Feratrum album, that it oc-
curs copiously on the alpine ridges of Norway and Switzer-
land, while we may search in vain for the same plant in any
intermediate locality. To confine ourselves to our legitimate
class for an illustration, our own beautiful Cynthia cardui is
found without a varying mark, according to LatreilJe, not
only at the Cape, but in New Holland, " though oceans roll
between ;" this common insect being fitted to exist under
very different ranges of temperature. In the same way is
Vanessa Antiopa distributed over all Europe and a great
part of the northern continent of America.

It may be objected to us, perhaps, when advocating the
claims o£ Sphina: Carolhia, quinquemaculata, Drurr(?V, &c., to
a place in our indigenous catalogues, that the instances of their
capture in this country are loo ^^ kw and far between" to
warrant the concession of such a privilege ; that their appear-
ance is of modern date, no mention of them being made by
the older entomologists, nor any instance of their capture
recorded prior to the middle of the last century.

To this we answer, that paucity of number cannot be
urged as an objection, without implicating many insects of
indisputable British origin in the general suspicion of ex-

* In Smith's English Flora, vol. i. p. 210., is this remark on Galium
Sparine : — " This common European plant has been found wild in the
remote country of Nepaul by the Hon. Captain Gardner, from whom
Dr. Wallich has sent us specimens." — J. D.

to he considered as indwenous, 151

to'

traneous descent. As far as we have had an opportunity of
learning, a multitude of our finest insects, amongst which
may be enumerated Deilephila lineata, euphorbias, and galii,
though pretty widely distributed, were nOt dreamed of by the
old collectors as natives of our own territory ; and, if we mistake
not, many of those scarcely included inter rariores at the
present day, e. g. Papilio Machao?z, Vanessa Antiopflr, &c.
were hardly known lie fore the time of Petiver, when the
votaries of entomology became more numerous. It was re-
served for the piercing scrutiny of a more scientific era; for
the indefatigable researches of a Stephens, a Leach, a Curtis,
and a Dale, to draw the highly interesting species that now
enrich and adorn our cabinets, as Eulepia graminea, Lycse^n«
dispar, Lse^iitf caenosa, with a host of others, fi'om an ob-
scurity as complete as if they were utter strangers in the
land. Yet no one, I presume, will venture to arraign their
title to adoption, were it only that the greater part, if not all
of them, are known to belong to strictly European species.

If frequency of occurrence is to be thrown into the scale
in favour of Mr. Stephens's hypothesis, then may »Sphinj:
Carolina or quinquemaculata boldly await the issue of the
decision, opposed to Deile})hila lineata or /Sphinx: pinastri,
since it appears that the former, or one of the two (if leally
distinct), has at least been taken alive in this countr}?^ nearly
or quite as often as the last-mentioned insect; which remark
may likewise be extended to species belonging to different
genera, of infinitely greater rarity, but indubitably British, as
Catocala fraxini, Colias Chrysothem^, &c.

Let us examine the validity of Mr. Stephens's objections
grounded on a note appended to his remarks upon Deilephila
Celerio, in his excellent Illustrations of Entomology*, where-
in he mentions the capture of nearly fifty species of exotic
insects in the West India Docks, and among the rest three
of the huge Mygale Avicularia. Then follows an observation
upon the extraneous origin of the jBlattse, so common in the
houses not only of the metropolis but also in those of most
of our seaport towns, which we think few will venture to con-
trovert. The note then concludes with an enumeration of
several exotic coleopterous insects, and one of the Orthoptera,
found at large in this country. It remains to be seen what so
formidable a cloud of insect evidence can achieve.

Mr. Stephens has not favoured us with an account of to
what orders, natural or artificial, the insects belonged, stated
to have been caught in the West India Docks ; but, from the

* Haustellata, vol. i. p. 129. infra,
L 4

152 Claim of certain Lepidopterous Insects

enumeration of such as he has himself detected, it may be
inferred they were mostly of the beetle tribe, and wood-
borers in their larva state. Can any thing be more apparent
than that the insects in question were imported along with
foreign wood, in which the larvae or pupa^ were embedded
till the appointed time for their disclosure arrived ; or the
imago itself might have taken up its abode in some crevice,
and so be conveyed across the Atlantic, endued as insects of
this class are with astonishing powers of abstinence. ikTygale
Avicularia has frequently been taken in other parts of Europe,
generally we believe amongst piles of wood ; but knowing as
we do the habits of the ^rachnidse, their propensity to con-
cealment, and their capability of resisting a long privation of
food, our wonder may cease at occasionally finding them at
large in less genial climates than their own. The appear-
ance of the Chinese Conocephalus is at once accounted for by
supposing its accidental introduction into one of the Com-
pany's tea boxes ; and surely, amidst such abundant good
cheer, passage free, and a secure berth, what earthly reason
could there be for his feeling mal a son aise, and not arriving
safe and sound ? Of these Mr. Stephens may truly say,
without danger of contradiction, " Vix ea nostra voco." ["I
can scarcely call them ours."]

Not so, however, I apprehend, of our outlawed Sphinges,
whose appearance it would puzzle a divine to account for on
the above principle. We have here to deal with a class of
insects of great size, and comparatively delicate organisation ;
their larvae, bulky, and conspicuous from the variety and
beauty of their colouring, are ill fitted to escape observation,
and seek retirement in holes and corners, few of which could
be found ample enough to conceal them effectually, did their
habits incline them to do so otherwise than by availing them-
selves of the partial shelter of some leaf; their transform-
ations into pupae are conducted below the surface of the
earth, the only condition under which animals of this exten-
sive order can exist for any length of time without taking
nourishment. With so many impediments to their acci-
dental transport, by what means can we conceive their
introduction to have been accomplished, presuming it always
to have been a fortuitous one ? We have demonstrated the
difficulty as it regards the larva, the necessary pabulum for
which is not to be looked for amongst the ship's stores ; the
subterraneous habits of the pupa are not less formidable ob-
stacles ; and the imago, it may be confidently asserted, could
not sustain a voyage across the Atlantic without the requisite
supply of its nectareous food. To conjecture that the eggs

to be consideird as indigenous, 155

may have been attached to some piece of wood or other
matter by the parent moth, which pieces of wood may have
been afterwards conveyed on board, and the ova hatched in
another hemisphere, is a gratuitous assumption, unwarranted
by experience of natural habits, not to mention the extreme
improbabihty of the larva being fehcitously landed, and
placed, just at the moment of its birth, in the enviable neigh-
bourhood of a potato field or a plant of tobacco.

I must confess there is one avenue by which our insects
may have gained a footing in this country which it would
be uncandid not to avow, it being the only plausible mode of
accounting for their adventitious dissemination. One may con-
ceive it possible for the pupag to been have dug up by chance,
and conveyed in the mould employed to preserve the ger-
minating faculties of many North American trees and shrubs
whose seeds require such treatment ; or in the bog earth [heath
mould] sometimes brought over in ballast by our vessels, for
the use of the nurserymen. But the fact that these supposed
strangers have so often made their appearance, and that too
sometimes in pairs, unaccompanied, as far as I know, by
other North American species likely to have made them-
selves simultaneously visible, if such were their origin, renders
the above supposition extremely hypothetical. We concede,
also, the possibility of several extra-European specimens that
have once or twice solitarily occurred owing their intro-
duction to the zeal of insect disseminators ; but we cannot
persuade ourselves to ascribe a similar origin to such as have
repeatedly been captured, and that sometimes in pairs and in
the larva state.

Speaking of »Sphin^ Carolina, Mr. Stephens says : — "The
simple fact of Mr. Atkinson's specimen having been reared
from the larva is not indicative of the native origin of the
species." Surely this is flying in the face of the strongest
evidence that can be adduced in favour of our insect clients.

We have shown the almost physical impossibility of their
introduction as larvae, and we know that the major part at
least of the iSphing^W^ will not breed in confinement * : to
what then can we ascribe the discovery of the caterpillar at
large, if not to the spontaneous union of the species in a

* This is too frequently the case with the larger Lepidoptera. Two
years ago I kept, at my lodgings in Paris, nearly twenty-five living speci-
mens of Sat. pyri, obtained from larvae found on elms, &c., around that
capital the preceding year ; and though the males were very active, espe-
cially at night, and had the full range of the apartment, I could never
accomplish my purpose of obtaining a stock of fertile eggs from the numerous
females associated with them. 1,::--;:.

154 Claim of certain Lepidopterotis Insects

climate favourable to their propagation? It cannot have
escaped the observation of those who have attentively con-
sidered the subject in reference to the soundness of Mr.
Stephens's views, that the recorded instances of the capture
of /SphinjT Carolina, T>vuvce^iy and quinquemaculata, with
otliers of the same genus, have occurred in parts of the king-
dom least favourable to the idea of their American import-
ation ; at Leeds, London, Sunderland, Isle of Wight, &c.,
places on the southern and eastern parts of our island, inland
as well as on the coast, and very remote from ports the most
frequented by ships from the New World, as Bristol or Liver-
pool, in whose neighbourhood no examples of their discovery
have hitherto been cited. It may be remarked, enpassant, that
the soil of Great Britain is particularly rich in the family of
the SphiY)gid<^, as, with the exception of Deilephila ? nerii,
Deilephila Fes})ertilio, Hipj^phae, and Smerinthus quercus,
we possess (unless greatly mistaken) all the other European
species of this cliarralng group.

As a proof of fallacy on my side, it may be said, if the
insects in question are truly indigenous, then should indigenous
plants be their common source of nutriment; whereas it is
distinctly stated by Abbot, and other authors, that the larva of
^phin^ Drura^i feeds on the Convolvulus Battdtas; that of
jSphirLT quinquemaculata and Carolhia on the potato, to-
bacco, and Jamestown weed, which latter is, I believe, the
Datura Stramonium, now a naturalised plant in England, and
which I have seen growing in very sequestered places, most
abundantly, along with another American (ffiiothera biennis),
in the forest of Fontainebleau and also in Hungary. With
as much propriety may the title of our insect to American
origin be questioned, since, with the single exception of the
Jamestown weed, all the other plants asserted to serve as their
usual food are foreign to the United States; but the objection
is at best a very feeble one, when it is considered that many
Lepidoptera in our own country are rarely found as larvae
upon any other than foreign plants which adorn our gardens,
or minister to our necessities. Thus Acherontia A'tropo^ is
seldom found but feeding on the potato or the white jasmine
(Jfesminum officinale), though we know the elder and the
bitter-sweet (Manum Dulcamara) to be its proper food in
this country, if not equally grateful with the first. Again,
jSphinjT ligustri, a strictly European species, is as often found
on the lilac as on privet; and Deilephila? nerii is met with
occasionally in all the temperate countries of Europe, except
our own island, feeding constantly on that tender green-house
shrub the Cerium Oleander, nor is it know a to betray a par-

to be considered as i?idigenous, 1 55

tlality for any other food; and yet, from its not unfrequent
appearance in the north of Germany in particular years, as
well as in other parts of the Continent, where that beautiful
plant requires careful protection from the severity of the
winters, it is to be presumed this magnificent moth has some
more abundant pabulum to resort to as a derfiiere ressource,
when compelled to forage in its native haunts, perhaps the
VincsL major, minor, or some species of Cynanchum, all
belonging to the same natural family of .^pocyneas. Few
polyphagous larvae are restricted to one natural family of
plants for subsistence ; but, were that the case, the soil might
furnish an acceptable treat to the subjects of the present dis-
sertation in our two indigenous >Solana, our henbane, deadly
nightshade, Ferbascum, or naturalised thorn-apple, while
^phin^ Drur<^V would probably feel quite at home making
a meal on our gracefully twining bird weeds.

To infer the exotic origin of any insect merely from the
foreign growth of the plant it feeds on, is an argument much
on a par with one that should go to prove the present in-
habitants of Wales unconnected by descent with the ancient
Britons, simply because thej^ no longer subsist like their an-
cestors on the spontaneous productions of their woods and
forests.

Having thus endeavoured to solve the enigmas which
these monsters of the insect race, like their prototj^pe of old,
have propounded to modern QEdipi, I shall conclude this
dissertation with a short summary of my ideas respecting the
propriety or impropriety of admitting into our lists of indi-
genous insects such as are recognised as inhabitants of other
and distant regions. We may do this, it appears to nie, with-
out risk of confusion, —

1. Wlien an insect is known to inhabit countries pretty
similar in climate, and having nearly the same mean temper-
ature with that in which it has been found at large, as is the
case with the southern part of Great Britain and the middle
portion of the United States ; though the average of each
season, taken separately, differs widely in the old and new
continent.

2. When the same insect has been repeatedly taken in
distant localities ; sometimes in pairs, and especially when it
has appeared in the larva state.

3. When the appearance of such insect cannot be ac-
counted for, except in a manner very problematical and
unsatisfactory.

On the other hand, we must regard such insects with
suspicion as —

15^ Characters of the European Diptera^

1. Have only once or twice been taken, as solitary speci-
mens, in situations favourable to the idea of their importa-
tion.

2. When known to belong to exclusively tropical genera
or species; occurring only on particular spots, and with
habits permitting their transportation from distant climates.

We have extended the above remarks much beyond what
the nature of the subject may appear to deserve ; but the
study of animal geography, if we may so term it, involves so
many curious and important considerations, which must be
reasoned upon ere they can be understood, that any attempt
to elicit truth may, we hope, plead in extenuation for our
want of brevity.

Clifton, Aug, 21. 1831. W. A. B.

Art. IX. The Characters of the European Diptera, from Mei-
gens " Systematische Beschreidung," Translated by George
Wailes, Esq.

Sir,
After the high encomiums bestowed upon Meigen's
Systematische Beschreibung der behannten Europa'ischen Zwei-
flugeligen Inseckten, or Systematic Description of the known
Dipterous Insects of Europe, in the Zoological Journal, and the
anticipation therein expressed, that, with the assistance afforded
by that work, the Diptera will form a favourite study of the
British entomologist, your inserting the synopsis of the
family and generic characters prefixed to the above publica-
tion, in an English dress, will, I trust, prove acceptable to the
young entomologists of this country, and tend to call their
attention to that interesting but hitherto neglected order of
insects. I am. Sir, yours, &c.

George Wailes.
Newcastle on Tj^ne, June, 1829.

DFPTERA.

Wings 2. Halteres 2, placed behind the wings.

Division I. Probosci'de^.

Proboscis terminating in a fleshy hbium, and with the haustellum covered
by a homy lahrum ; in front of the same are 2 articulated palpi.

Tfpula imperiklis, and side

from Meigen's " Systematische Beschreibung" 157

A. Anteiince mth numerous Joints.

Fam. I. TlPVhA'iam. (fgA5.)

Antenncs porrect, or directed forwards, having 6 or
more distinct joints. Palpi exserted (fixed ex-
ternally), articulated. Halteres naked. Abdomen
with 7 or 8 segments.

a. Culicifo'rmes.

l^yes lunate. Ocelli wanting. Antennce of the
males plumose, of the females pubescent. Mouth
not elongated. Palpi 5-jointed. Thorax without
a transverse suture. Abdomen with 8 segments.

* Proboscis porrect, longer than the anten-
nae ; Palpi straight : Wings with the
nervures and margm squamose. view of the head.

Genus

1. Cu'^LEx. Palpi of the males longer than the antennae, of the females

very short.

2. ANc'rHELES. Palpi of both sexes longer than the antennae.

3. Abides. Palpi of both sexes shorter than the antennae.

** Proboscis shorter than the antennae ; Palpi incurved.

4. CoRE^'THRA. Wings with the margins squamose, the nervures hairy.

5. Chiro'nomus. Antennce of the males 13-jointed,. of the females 6-

jointed.

6. Ta'nypus. Antennce 14-jointed, of the females with apex incrassate^

7. Ceratopo^gon. Antennce 13-jointed, the last five joints elongated.

Legs all equal.

8. Macro'peza. Antennce 13-jointed, the last 5 joints elongated. Hind-

legs very long.

b. 6?ALLl'C0LiE.

JSi/es lunate. Antenncs verticillate, or furnished with circles of hairs.
Palpi incurved. Wings villose, obtuse, with 2 or 3 longitudinal ner-
vures. TibicJB ecalcarate (without a spine),

9. Lasio'ptera. Wings with 2 longitudinal nervures. Ocelli wanting,
10. Cecidomy^ia. W^ing* with 3 longitudinal nervures. Oce/&' wanting.
i 1. Campylomy^za. Ocelli 3.

C. iVbCTU^F0''RMES.

Eyes lunate. Ocelli wanting. Antennce moniliforra, or like a row of
beads, verticillate. Wings broad, villose, with many longitudinal but no
transverse nervures. Tibics ecalcarate.

12. PSYCHO^DA.

d, ROSTRA^TJE.

JEj/es roundish, divided above by the frons (or forehead). Ocelli wanting.
Head produced into a rostrum. Palpi incurved. Thorax with an arcuate
transverse suture in the middle. Abdomen with 8 segments. Tibia ra-
ther more calcarate.

13. Erio'ptera. WingSf nervures villose. Intermediate pair of legs

shortened.
14). LiMNO^BiA. Wings, nervures naked. Antenrus from 15 to 17-jointed,

simple. Pff /pi, joints equal.
15. Rhipi'dia. Antennce 14-jointed; joints globose, remote; of the male

bipectinate (twice branched, like the teeth of a comb).

158 Characters of the European D'lptera,

16. Cteno'phora. AntenruB 13-jointed, of the male duplicato-pcctinate

(doubly-pectinate). Wings shining.

17. Ti'puLA.f J«^t*««<z? 13 jointed, alike in both sexes. Pa/jtji, last joint

elongated.

18. Nephro'toma. Antenncc of the male 19-jointed, of the female 15-

jointed, alike. Palpiy last joint elongated.

19. Ptycho'ptera. AntenncB 16-jointed. Palpi, last joint elongated.

WingSy posterior margin plicate (plaited).

20. Nemato'cera. Antenrus 6-jointedj joints of the clavola (or club-

shaped portion) equal.

21. Aniso'mera. AntenncB Q ]o\nied'y basal joint of clavola very long.

22. Tricho'cera. AntenncB seti^oYm; 2 basal joints thick, remainder very

indistinct. Palpi 5-jointed.

e. FUNGl'COL^.

Eyes round or oblong, divided above by the frons. Ocelli unequal, large,
or apparently wanting. Palpi incurved, 4-jointed. Thorax without a
transverse suture. Abdomen with 7 segments. Coxce long. Tihice cal-
carate (or furnished with a spine).

* AntenncB setiform, for the most part with indistinct joints, the two
basal ones incrassate.

23. Di'xA. Ocelli wanting.

24. BoLiTo'pHiLA. Ocelli 3, in a line.

25. Macro'cera. Ocelli 3, in a triangle.

** AntenncB compressed, 16-jointed.

26. Sy'napha. Eyes round. Ocelli 3, in a line. Tihics sides unarmed.

27. Myceto'^bia. Eyes reniform. Ocelli 3, approximate in a triangle.

28. Platyu^ra. Eyes very round. Ocelli 3, approximate, in a triangle.

Ahdomeny apex depressed, enlarged. Tibics unarmed (without spines).

29. Gnori'ste. Proboscis elongated. Ocelli 3, in a triangle. Tibia: y

sides spinose.

30. Scio'pHiLA. Ocelli approximate, in a triangle. TibuBy sides spinose.

Wings with a small intermediate, subquadrate, nearly square cell.

31. Lei^a. Ocelli 3. TibicSy sides spinose. Wings without a small inter-

mediate cell.

32. Myceto'phila. Ocelli only 2, distinct, placed at the margin of the

eyes. TibicBy sides spinose.

33. Co'rdyla. Ocelli wanting. TibicBy sides unarmed.

/ LU^GUBRI.

Eyes nearly confluent (joined together), deeply emarginate (notched).
Ocelli unequal. Antenna cylindric. Palpi .3-jointed. Thorax without
a transverse suture. Abdomen with 7 segments.

34. Scf ara.

g. Latipe'nnes.

Eyes (red) of the males confluent, of the females distant, reniform. Ocelli
wanting. Antenna cylindric. Palpi 4-jointed. Proboscis porrect, per-
pendicular. Abdomen with 8 segments. Wings very broad.

35. SlMU^LIA.

h. i^fuSCEFO'RMES.

Eyes (black) of the males confluent, of the females distant, roundish.

-|- Mr. Curtis's genus Dolichopeza, which may be characterised as having
the antennaj 12-jointed alike in both sexes, and palpi with the last joint
elongate, is by him considered as connecting Limnobia and T'jpula. (Cwr-
tis*s British Entomology y vol. ii. pi. 62.)

from Meigen's " Systematische Beschreihun^

159

Ocelli 3, equal in size. Antenrus cylindric. Thorax without a transverse
suture at the middle.

36. ScATo'psE. AntenncB 1 1-jointed. Eyes lunate.

37. Pentiie''tria. Antennfs W-^omieA. Eyes o\q\. Z/<7g,? unarmed.

38. Di^LOPHUS. AntenncB 1 1-jointed. Fore-tibia with the apex radiated

39. Bi'viio. AntenncB 9-jointed.

40. Aspi'sTES. AntenncB 8-jointed, the apex clavate.

41. Rhy^phus. AntenncB 16-jointed.

B. Antennce mthfew Joints.

Fam. II. XYLO'PHAGI. (/g.46.)

AntenncB porrect, approximating at the
base, triarticulate ; third joint 8-ringed.
Proboscis retracted (drawn into the
head), only the labella exserted. Ocelli
3. Abdomen with 8 segments, Hal-
teres naked. Wings parallel, incum-
bent (lying on the back). Onychii
3.t

42. Be^ris. Scutellum multiradiate.

43. Xylo'phagus. Scutellum unarmed.

44. CcENOMY^iA. Scutellum biden-

tate.

Fam. III.

Xyl6phagus maculktus, with the antenna
of X, ater.

rABA^NII.

AntenncB porrect, approximating at
the base; either 3-jointed, with
the third joint from 4 to 8-ringed,
or 6-jointed. Proboscis and palpi
exserted. J6c?o?we«with7segments.
Halteres sub-concealed. Wings
divaricate (spreading), or deflexed
(turned downwards). Onychii 3.

(/g.47.)

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

Tabinus teurinus.

a. AntenncB ^-jointed.
Pango'^nia. AntenncB y third ]0\nt

8-ringed. Ocelli 3. Proboscis

exserted, elongated.
Si'lvius. AntenncBy basal joint cylindric, second cyathiform, third

5-ringed. Ocelli 3.
Taba^nus. AntenncB, third joint 5-ringed, the upper side excised (or

notched) at the base. Ocelli wanting.
Chry^sops. AntenncBy 2 basal joints cylindric, equal, third 5-ringed.

Ocelli 3.
HJEMATo'poTA. AntenncB, third joint 4-ringed. Ocelli wanting.

50. Hexa'toma.

b. AntenncB 6'Jointed.

Fam. IV. LETTIDES. (Jig. 48.)

Antenncs porrect, approximating at the base, triarticulate, third joint not
ringed. Proboscis and Palpi exserted. OcelM 3. Abdomen with 7 segments.
Halteres naked. Onychii 3.

f This term is used by Meigen to designate those pulvilli of Kirby
and Spence, which are situated between the unguiculi. (See^g. 57. a.)

160

Characters of the European Dipt era,

61. Le'ptis. Antennce, third joint conic,
with an apical seta (see ^g. 49. a).
Ocelli 3, vertical.

52. A'therix. AnfcnncB, third joint ovate,

with a dorsal seta.

53. Clino'cera. AnteniKSy third joint

conic, with an apical seta. Ocelli 3,
frontal.

I^ptis distigma (male).

Fam. V. XYLO'TOM^. (/g. 49.)
AntenncB porrect, approximating at the base, triarticulate ; third joint not
ringed. Proboscis retracted. Ocelli 3. Abdomen with 7 segments, conic,
Halteres naked. Wings divaricate. Onychii 2.
54. ThereVa.

49

M^das lusilanicus.

Fam. VT. MYDA^ SII. (Jig. 50.)
AntenncB porrect, 5-jointed, the joints dissimilar, the last clavate

55. My'das.

Fam. VII. ^OMBYLIA^RII. (/g.51.)
AntenncB porrect, triarticulate, third joint not
ringed. Hypostoma ( " The region of the
head between the antennae, eyes, and
mouth." Meigen), not bearded. Frons
flat. Ocelli 3. Abdomen with 7 segments,
cylindric or elliptic. Wi7igs expanded.
Halteres naked.

56. HiRMONEU^RA. J72^£'ww^, joints globose,

third with a long terminal style. Ocelli,
frontal one remote from the other
two. Proboscis concealed.

57. Falle^nia. AntenncB, ]oints globose, third with a Ion

Proboscis elongate, bent under the body.

58. Sty'gia. AntenncB contiguous, basal joint with the apex dilated, third

with a terminal style. Proboscis concealed.

59. i^^NTHRAX. AntenncB distant, basal joint cylindric. Proboscis re-

tracted or sub-exserted. Eyes reniform.

60. iWu^Lio. Antenna; distant. Proboscis exserted, horizontal, as long as

the head. Eyes elliptic.

61. ^omby'lius. Jw^t'7mce contiguous, third joint compressed. Proboscis

exserted, horizontal, longer than head. Body wooWy. Abdomen ovate.

62. Phthi'ria. AntenncB contiguous ; third joint fusiform, compressed.

Proboscis exserted, horizontal, longer than the head. Body downy.
Abdomen cylindric or flat.

63. Ge^ron. Antennce contiguous; third joint subulate (or awl-shaped).

Proboscis exserted, horizontal, longer than the head.
64 U^siA. AntenncB contiguous ; third joint fusiform, obtuse. Proboscis
exserted, horizontal. Body villose.

jSombylius cruciatus (male).

terminal style.

from Meigen^s ** Sijstematische Beschreihung.^

161

65. Floras. Antenncs contiguous, basal joint very thick, conic. Proboscis
exserted, horizontal, as long as the head.
. 66. Cylle'nia. AntcnncB contiguous, basal joint cylindric, third conic.
Proboscis exserted, horizontal, as long as the head.

67. Toxo'pHoRA. Antenncs contiguous, cylindric, third joint short, acute.

Proboscis exserted, bent upwards. . «. , .

Fam. VIII. Jsi'lici. {fig, 52.)

AntenncB porrect, approximating at the
base, turned upwards, triarticulate,
third joint not ringed. Hypostoma with
a mystax (" a semicircle of bristles or
hairs above the mouth." Meigen.).
From impressed. Proboscis horizontal,
porrect, short. Abdomen with 7 seg-
ments. Haltei-es naked. Wings paral-
lel, incumbent.

a. Tarsi ivith 2 Onychii. ^silus chrysitis.

68. Dio'cTRiA. J72^eMWfP, third joint having an obtuse biarticulate apical

style or bristle. liind tibice straight, ciliated on the internal side.

69. Dasypo^gon. AntenncB, third joint having a short acute apical style.

Tibics straight, not ciliated. Anns of the females spinulose.

70. La^phria. ^?z^ewwce, third joint obtuse, without an apical style. 7W(S

arcuate.

71. ^si^Lus. AntenncB^ third joint having a naked elongate setiform apical

style. TibiiB straight, spinulose.

b. Tarsi with no Onychii.

72. Leptoga^ster.

Fam. IX. HYBOTINiE. (/g.53.)
Antenna: porrect, approximating at the base,
triarticulate, the two basal joints very closely
united, so as apparently to constitute one ;
third joint not ringed. Hypostoma not
bearded, flat. From flat. Proboscis hori-
zontal, exserted, short. T'mw^ very gibbous.
Abdomen slender, with 7 segments. Halteres
naked. Wings parallel, incumbent.

73. Hydros. AntenncB, third joint conic, with

an apical pubescent seta. Hind femora clavate.

74. Ocydro'mia. A7itenncs, third joint lenticulate (of the form of a lens),

with an apical seta. Legs all simple.

75. CEda LEA. AntenncB third joint elongate, compressed, without an

apical seta. Hind femora (thighs) clavate.

Fam. X. ^MPFDIiE. {fig, 54.)
AntenncB porrect, approximating at the base,
triarticulate; third joint not ringed, the apex
with a style or seta. Hypostoma not bearded.
Ocelli 3. Proboscis exserted, very perpendi-
cular. Palpi incurved. Abdomen with 7
segments. Wings parallel, incumbent. Ony-
chii 2.

76. Hi'lara. AntenncB, third joint subulate,

with an apical style. Proboscis shorter - -»"- ^f^^'*-

than head. Wings with an oblique transverse nervure at the apex.
Vol. V. — No. 24. m '

H^bos musckriufc

l^'mpis opaca.

162 Meigen*s Characters of the European Dtptera,

77. Brachy'stoma. AntenncBy third joint conic, with a very long terminal

seta. Proboscis the length of the head. Wings with an oblique
transverse nervure at the apex.

78. Glo^ma. AntenncBy third joint globose, with an apical seta. Wings

with an oblique transverse nervure at the apex.

79. ^'mpis. AntenncBy third joint conic, with an apical style. Proboscis

longer than the head. Wings vf'iih. the transverse nervure at the
apex very pferpendicular.

80. Rhamphomy^ia. Wings without a transverse nervure at the apex.

Fam. XL TACHYDRO^MIiE. (fg. 55,)

AntenncB porrect, approximating at the base,
" biarticulate, with an apical seta. Ocelli^. Pro-

boscis short, perpendicular. Palpi incumbent

on the proboscis. Abdomen with 7 segments.

Onychii 2.

81. Hemerodro^mia. Anterior coxes elongate.

82. Tachydro^mia. Anterior or intermediate

femora incrassate.

83. Dra'PETIS. Legs all alike. Tachydrbmia fascikta. and three

various forms of antennae.

Fam. XII. INFLA^TiE. (Jig. ^^')
AntenncB very minute, biarticulate. Head almost
wholly occupied by the eyes. Ocelli 3. Abdo-
men very thick, with 5 segments. Onychii 3.

84. Cy'rtus. Proboscis exserted, longer than

the head.

85. AcRo'cERA. Pro6o5m concealed. AntenncB

vertical.

86. He^nops. Proboscis concealed. Antennes

inserted on the superior margin of the
mouth.

56

C^rtus gibbus.

Fam. XIII. STRATIO'MYDJE.

AntenncB porrect, approximating at the base, triar-
ticulate ; third joint ringed. Proboscis with only
the labella exserted. Ocelli 3. Abdomen with
5 segments. Onychii 3.

87. Pachyga'ster. -4 w^eww^ third joint globose,

4-ringed, with a terminal seta. Scutellum
unarmed.

88. i^A'RGUS. AntenncBy third joint lenticulate, 3-

ringed, with an apical seta. Scutellum un-
armed.

89. Nemotelus. AntenncB inserted on a conical

hypostoma ; third joint fusiform, or spindle-
shaped, 4-ringed, with an apical style. Scutellum unarmed.

90. Clitella^ria. AntenncSy thu-d joint conic, 5-ringed, with an apical

style.

91. Oxy'cera. AntenncBy third joint fusiform, 4-ringed, with an apical

style. Scutellum bispinose.

92. Strati' OMYS. iin^enius, third joint sub-fusiform, 5-ringed. Scutellum

bidentate.

Stratiomy;
head of i

furckta (fem.), and
S. concinna, (male).

Illmtratiom of British Zoology.

163

Art. X. Illustrations in British Zoology. By George John-
ston, M.D. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edia^
burgh. •'

2. Acti'nia Tue'di^e. (Jig.58.)
CI. Radiata, Ord. Echinoderraata, Fam. Fistulides, Gen. Actinia. '

A. — Corpore crasso, cylindraceo, laevi aut rugis sponte circinato ; tenta-
culis crassis, numerosis, conicis, striatis, castaneis, corpore brevioribus.

A. — Body thick, somewhat cylindrical, smooth or wrinkled, with circular
folds J tentacula thick, numerous, conical, longitudinally striate, chest-
nut-coloured, shorter than the body.

f

. ' ' '■ '■ i

c-Sl^tfa

v^'i ^^ma

The only British species of this genus to which the one
before us has any relation is the Actinia sulcata, described
and figured by Dr. Gaertner in the 52d volume of the Philo-
sophical Transactions^ p. 78. 1. 1. fig. 1. Both species corre-
spond, or at least do not differ materially, in colour and size ;
and they are both equally incapable of retracting and conceal-
ing their tentacula within the oral aperture ; but they differ
in the relative proportions between these organs and the body,
and in the sculpture of the latter, which in A. sulcata is grooved
in a longitudinal direction ; and this character forms so pro-
minent a part both in the figure and description of Gaertner,
that an animal destitute of any such markings, as ours is,
seems entitled to the rank of a distinct species ; the more par-
ticularly, as neither Dr. Gaertner nor myself have drawn up
our descriptions from one, but from the examination of seve-
ral individuals. : *

M 2

164 Volcanoes.

Actinia Tuediae is amongst the largest of our species. The
body, when relaxed, generally measures 3 in. in length, and
about the same in diameter ; it is of a uniform reddish or
brownish-orange colour, and either smooth or contracted at
pleasure into circular folds. The base is smooth and orange-
coloured, with a thin areolar skin. The mouth is ever vary-
ing in size and form ; and there are often protruded from it
yesicular-like lobes of a reddish colour, scored with fainter
lines. When fully expanded, the oral disk is not less than
4 in. across ; there is a smooth space between the mouth and
tentacula, which are very numerous, and placed in several
rows around the circumference ; those of the inner row are
larger than the others, measuring frequently 2 in. in length,
and they become gradually smaller in the exterior series.
They are of a chestnut or reddish flesh colour, often darker-
coloured towards the bases, but never variegated with rings
of different hues; thick and clumsy, tapered to an obtuse
point, marked longitudinally with distinct lines or impressed
striae, tubular, perforated at the ends, and constricted at their
insertions. The creature has no power of withdrawing them
within the oral aperture, as the greater number of Actiniae
have ; nor does it seem capable even of shortening them in
any considerable degree, but it twists them in a wreathed or
spiral form, or gives the whole circle a greater or less degree
of expansion.

The trivial name which I have bestowed on this species is
intended to indicate the place of its first discoveiy, Tuedra
being, according to Sir Robert Sibbald, the ancient name of
the maritime parts of Berwickshire. It is not uncommon on
this coast, but is found only in deep water, whence it is drag-
ged up by our fishermen. I have often found the tentacula,
in a separate state, adhering to their lines; and as these retain
their irritability and motion for a long time, they are apt to
be mistaken for independent and perfect worms, which they
much resemble. Our figure represents the animal about one
half of its natural size. I am, Sir, yours, &e.

George Johnston, M.D»
Berwick upon Tweedy Jan, 7. 1832,

Art. XI. Volcanoes, By W. M. HiGorNS, Escj. F.G,S., and
J. W. Draper, Esq.

From the similarity which is observed between inorganic
objects in all countries, it may be supposed that there is less
value in the detail of observations relating to them than in

Volcanoes. 165

those investigations which are directed to other branches of
natural science. This is a mistake into which nearly all
early scientific travellers fell. When they visited a foreign
country, they found themselves surrounded, both in the vege-
table and animal creation, with so many novel objects, that
they paid little or no regard to the physical and geological
characters of the district, but satisfied themselves and their
readers with a vague remark that it was more mountainous or
level than this or that portion of their native country ; and
was formed of granite or sandstone, resembling that which
occurred at some other specified place. But as soon as the
science of geology attracted the attention of naturalists, the
importance of an extensive observation of inanimate nature
was generally admitted; for it required little experience to
discover that by this means alone any knowledge could be
obtained of the superposition of rocks and their probable
formation. But in spite of the extended observations which
have been recorded, these problems are still hypothetical
points in geology, which cannot be satisfactorily determined
from the data we possess. Geology must be brought to the
simple but noble condition of a practical science; and, like
chemistry, watch over its accumulating facts, jealous of hypo-
thesis. So long as Stahl and Beccher haunted chemistry
with their phlogistic phantom, every phenomenon was wrapt
in the mist which it generated. But, in speaking of geology,
almost every author has found a world which can only exist
so long as it preserves the character which his imagination
has given it; and could not have existed at all, had it not been
formed according to his opinions. When geologists are cured
of the mania which has seized them, and turn their powerful
energies to the discovery of facts, our knowledge of volcanic
districts, and the phenomena which attend volcanic activity,
will proportionally increase ; for the geologist alone is capable
of making those observations upon which rational opinions can
be formed. There was a time, and it is almost within the
memory of some of our readers, when the mounts Etna and
Vesuvius were made the types of universal volcanic action ;
but the more extended observation of modern science has
already given us a juster conception of this subject, has
exposed many facts presumed to be connected with their
causes, and made us tolerably acquainted with their geological
position and periods of activity.

There is no term more vaguely applied than the word vol-
cano. Sometimes it is used to signify hot springs ; at other
times, cones which eject mud, as at Turbaco in South Ame-

M 3

166 Volcanoes.

rica ; while oy other writers it is applied in the same page to
a fissure through which a cohimn of smoke is projected, and
to immense mountains that eject liquid rocks. Now, how
pertain soever it may be, in the theories of some speculatists,
that they all derive their origin from the same cause, some
difference should be made in language : and therefore, in-
stead of applying the term to every situation in which heated
substances are ejected, we shall confine it to those elevations
which are terminated by an interior cavity, and appear to have
gected liquid earths.

There has been much doubt among geologists whether we
are to attribute hot springs to the same agent as volcanoes.
In some instances there can be no doubt that they derive
their caloric from the same source, but in others there seems
every probability that it arises from other causes. Few per-
sons, for instance, would doubt that the geysers of Iceland
have an intimate connection with the numerous volcanoes
with which that singular island abounds : but there may be a
reasonable scepticism in attributing the hot springs of our own
country, most of which arise in the lias beds, so remarkable
for sulphuret of iron, to the same cause.

Volcanoes, according to our definition of them, may be
divided into two classes, extinct and active. There is some
difficulty in determining when a volcano may be